Aquaculture Magazine October-November Vol. 44 No. 5

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INDEX

Aquaculture Magazine Volume 44 Number 5 October - November 2018

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EDITOR´S COMMENTS

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INDUSTRY NEWS

14 ARTICLE

Beneficial effects of dietary probiotics mixture on hemato-immunology and cell apoptosis of Labeo rohita fingerlings reared at higher water temperatures.

18 NEWS FROM THE AADAP

News from the Aquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership.

20 ARTICLE

Evaluation of a national operational salmon lice monitoring system —From physics to fish.

on the

cover Genetic Strategies for Offshore Aquaculture: Improvement vs.

Mitigation of Potential Impacts

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26 ARTICLE

Instilling a Culture of Safety in Aquaculture.

Volume 44 Number 5 October - November 2018

Editor and Publisher Salvador Meza info@dpinternationalinc.com

34 ARTICLE

Supplementation stocking of Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in small boreal lakes: Ecotypes influence on growth and condition.

44 LATIN AMERICA REPORT Recent News and Events.

Editor in Chief Greg Lutz editorinchief@dpinternationalinc.com

Editorial Assistant Nancy Jones Nava editorial@dpinternationalinc.com

Editorial Design Francisco Cibrián

Designer Perla Neri design@design-publications.com

46 AFRICA REPORT

Africa Report: Recent News and Events.

Marketing & Sales Manager Christian Criollos crm@dpinternationalinc.com

Business Operations Manager Adriana Zayas administracion@design-publications.com

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COLUMNS

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AQUACULTURE STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL News from the Aquaculture Stewardship Council.

By ASC Staff

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NUTRITION

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SALMONIDS

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AQUAPONICS

Lipid Nutrition of Farmed Aquatic Animals.

By: Waldemar Rossi Jr.

Ups and downs of salmon and trout culture in Spain.

By Asbjørn Bergheim

The backyard aquaponics revolution has the potential of stalling unless some things change.

By: George B. Brooks, Jr. Ph.D.

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THE LONG VIEW

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TECHNICAL GURU

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AQUAFEED

The Seafood Albatross.

By Aaron A. McNevin

Chillers and Heat Pumps.

by Amy Stone*

Science finds solutions for aquafeed Business moves, ingredient views and market trends in aquaculture feed.

By Suzi Dominy

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Science…

By C. Greg Lutz

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he standard level of scientific literacy within a nation is often reflected in policy decisions, be it positively or negatively. As I’ve mentioned before, the public’s perception of science (as shaped by the media) often involves a bunch of folks in white lab coats, huddled around a Bunsen burner.

Any assessment of the current state of aquaculture will illustrate that science continues to play a major role in the advancement of the industry. In this issue we can see some promising examples of the application of “cutting edge” science, especially as it relates to nutrition.

The use of probiotics and prebiotics in diets for fish and shellfish is 4 »

gaining recognition among researchers and industry, to a great extent as a result of modern molecular techniques that allow us to evaluate and interpret results from research trials.

Science is also the foundation for many other advancements in the development of novel aquafeed ingredients. The nutritionists working today with aquatic species have arguably done more to advance animal nutrition for the coming decades than those working with traditional livestock animals.

As in other disciplines, the combination of art and science is also evident among aquaculture producers of all stripes. When considering shell characteristics in oysters both

science and management play important roles, and this topic has taken on renewed importance in response to market trends in the U.S. and elsewhere. There’s an art to how to grow deep bodied oysters, but there’s also some underlying science.

System design in hatcheries and recirculating production represents another area of focus where a blend of art and science is required. Unfortunately, this seems to be one of those areas where the metrics never become sufficiently standardized to stem the never-ending pontificating of “experts” at industry trade shows and scientific meetings. Luckily, there are experts in the trenches willing to provide first-hand guid-

ance, as is the case in our Tech Guru column.

At times, science contributes to the fundamental benefit of aquaculture policy at the national, state and local levels… but at times science seems to have little or no place in policy debates. A great example of a nation with the political will to embrace science for the sake of both industry growth and environmental conservation is the national sea lice modelling/monitoring program underway in Norway.

Recognizing the value of science is perhaps what sets most aquaculture practitioners and researchers apart from their critics. There are times when trade-offs must be made.

One example involves genetic strategies for offshore aquaculture –with the need to minimize impacts to surrounding ecosystems while still allowing economic activity. A net full of “improved” fish may result in reduced waste production, but increased genetic threats to local populations in the event of escape.

And, when considering the state of offshore aquaculture in the U.S., it is still painfully obvious that in many ways aquaculture simply does not fit in to the existing policy/legal framework of this country (and many others). The on-going legal battle regarding NOAA’s management plans for offshore production illustrate that a fishery management plan format is not easily adapted to farming the seas. This lack of fit is also apparent in the marketplace… leading to the “Seafood Albatross” concept.

Policy limitations have also been a major let-down as reflected in the potential for aquaponics to stall or decline in this country. Increasingly, it may be up to industry to strike out on its own and take the lead in all sorts of initiatives. A great example of this can be found in Dr. Alvaro Garcia’s discussion of instilling a culture of safety in aquaculture – keeping in mind that ours is one of the most dangerous occupations in food production. Stay safe. Stay positive.

Keep reading.

Dr. C. Greg Lutz has a B.A. in Biology and Spanish by the Earlham College at Richmond, Indiana, a M.S. in Fisheries and a Ph.D. in Wildlife and Fisheries Science by the Louisiana State University. His interests include recirculating system technology and population dynamics, quantitative genetics and multivariate analyses and the use of web based technology for result-demonstration methods.

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RESEARCHNEWS REPORT INDUSTRY

GAA Certification Program Producing Positive Results

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mong the most common benefits facilities cited are increased sales and access to new markets, improved business practices and increased customer trust.

Almost 50 percent of the survey respondents cited increased sales and access to new markets as a benefit of BAP certification. Many have gained more access to markets, particularly the United States and United Kingdom markets, while others state that becoming certified symbolizes a level of quality, reliability and sustainability which has helped to increase sales.

Improved trust was a common theme among respondents as well.

They feel the BAP logo demonstrates a commitment to quality, food safety and sustainability, and builds confidence between the facility and its customers.

BAP’s supply chain transparency program was cited as another source of increased trust between the facilities and suppliers as well as improving business practices. As a BAP endorser, companies have access, free of charge, to BAP’s supply chain transparency technology, which provides them with visibility into their supply chains. This process helps increase engagement throughout the production chain and

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Initial results from a survey conducted by the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s (GAA) Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) third-party certification program show the benefits facilities have experienced from becoming BAP certified.

increase the volume of products from BAP-certified facilities.

“The feedback on how BAP has improved their businesses has been positive and encouraging. Facilities are improving their own internal training, document control, accountability and awareness of environmental and social factors. Not only have their internal operations improved, but facilities are also reporting that their external relationships are benefiting. Their customers are increasing their sales with them because BAP is a recognized symbol of quality and sustainability,” said BAP Operations Manager Ali Blais.

Other areas cited for improving business practices were document control, accountability of operations and training. GAA and BAP offer several types of training, including the iBAP program, BAP auditor training courses and the Global Aquaculture Academy, which offers online courses in multiple languages in social accountability, water quality, animal safety and more.

“We are always looking for ways to improve our service to companies in the BAP program and our regular surveys are an important part of our review process,” said GAA Executive

Director Andrew Mallison. “It’s great to see how many companies find joining the program and getting certified is straight-forward and also gives real benefits to their businesses.”

The infographic here shows testimonials from some of the facilities that participated in the survey. Other areas covered in the survey were the application process, experience with BAP, experience with the certification body, auditor and audit, overall experience, and areas for improvement within BAP. More than 40 responses have been received so far, and BAP is still looking for feedback.

BAP is the world’s most comprehensive third-party aquaculture certification program, with standards encompassing environmental responsibility, social responsibility, food safety, animal health and welfare and traceability. It’s also the only program to cover the entire aquaculture production chain — processing plants, farms, hatcheries and feed mills.

Through the first half of 2018, there were 2,079 BAP-certified processing plants, farms, hatcheries and feed mills in 34 countries and six continents. In terms of certified facilities, the BAP program has more than doubled in the past two and a half years.

Australis Aquaculture sells Turners Falls operation to focus on ocean-based aquaculture United States.- On September 12, Australis Aquaculture, LLC announced it has sold its land-based US barramundi aquaculture business located in Turners Falls, MA to Great Falls Aquaculture, LLC. Terms of the sale were not disclosed.

According to Australis founder and CEO, Josh Goldman, “This was a strategic decision that allows Australis to focus on the expansion of our marine aquaculture operations in Southeast Asia. We will continue to operate all North American sales, marketing, logistics and finance activities from Massachusetts as we grow our global retail and foodservice business. We continue to believe in the importance of recirculating aquaculture technologies and it remains an integral part of our Vietnam farming systems. However, for us, we see our long-term growth in large-scale ocean farming.”

Australis began farming barramundi in 2004 and used the Turners Falls facility to develop the knowledge and expertise needed to scale barramundi production in the marine tropics. The company has been operating in Vietnam since 2006.

Following its acquisition of Marine Farms Vietnam in 2016, Australis became the largest aquaculture sea lease holder in Vietnam and has focused on building new farms and expanding processing operations in support of its international business.

Australis has also begun to invest in seaweed cultivation as an integrated part of its marine aquaculture operations.

Originally developed by Goldman and operated under the names AquaFuture and, subsequently Fins Technology LLC, Australis stated the Turners Falls facility is one of the world’s largest and longest continuously operating recirculating aquaculture (RAS) facilities. It was originally developed in 1990 for

hybrid striped bass and Australis’ press release indicates that the facility pioneered many of the methods now used globally in RAS. The Turners Falls barramundi earned the Best Choice rating from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch® Program in 2006. Great Falls Aquaculture will continue to produce barramundi at this facility to serve specialty seafood markets across North America.

Great Falls Aquaculture operates a number of aquaculture farms in the Northeast US. Its management team includes Keith Wilda, who was formerly Production Manager at Australis’ Turners Falls facility.

Australis will retain all members of its executive, sales, logistics, accounting and marketing teams. The Turners Falls production team will be retained by Great Falls Aquaculture. Australis’ corporate office will relocate from Turners Falls to the neighboring town of Greenfield, MA »

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

U.S. Department of Commerce Strategic Plan for 2018-2022 Targets Aquaculture Growth The following are excerpts from the plan relating to this objective: “Marine aquaculture in the United States contributes to seafood supply, supports commercial fisheries, and has great growth potential. We will help it grow faster by reducing regulatory burden and driving aquaculture research. A strong U.S. marine aquaculture industry will serve a key role in U.S. food security and improve our trade balance with other nations.

“Strategies • Provide a one-stop shop for federal approval of marine aquaculture permits.

We will work with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, other federal agencies, and coastal states to streamline federal marine aquaculture permitting. This will create a more predictable and timely permit review process, and allow businesses to begin operation more rapidly, thus accelerating the growth of the U.S. seafood industry.

• Support research to advance marine aquaculture.

In collaboration with industry, we will support research to advance commercial-scale marine aquaculture production. We will implement pre-competitive commercial scale demonstration facilities in collaboration with —and co-funded by— industry and coastal seafood communities. These pilot programs will facilitate the commercial viability of marine aquaculture production.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) will use aquaculture research to remove production bottlenecks related to siting, disease, genetics and genomics, hatchery seed stock, and feed availability.”

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The U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) recently unveiled its strategic

Plan for the next four years. Featured prominently under Strategic Goal 2 – Enhance Job Creation was Strategic Objective 2.1: Increase Aquaculture Production.

The plan cites NOAA as the sole agency responsible for attaining these goals and implementing these strategies. It is noteworthy to recognize that in June of 2011, the DOC released a prior Aquaculture Policy document, which listed the following policy points:

It is the policy of the DOC, consistent with the overarching National Aquaculture Act of 1980, to: 1) Create a business climate and technological base that encourages and fosters the development of sustainable aquaculture in the United States that provides domestic jobs, products, and services while conserving aquatic resources.

2) Encourage and foster environmentally sound and sustainable aquaculture innovation that increases the value of domestic aquaculture production and creates American business, jobs, and trade opportunities.

3) Ensure agency aquaculture decisions protect wild species and healthy, productive, and resilient coastal and ocean ecosystems, including the protecting of sensitive marine areas.

4) Advance scientific knowledge to develop and refine aquaculture technologies and methods to improve production, safeguard the environment, and sustain local food and cultural benefits, in cooperation with federal, state, local and tribal and academic partners.

5) Encourage and foster the development and application of aquaculture technologies that provide economic and/or ecological value by enhancing or restoring depleted, threatened, and endangered wild fish stocks and restoring habitat (e.g., oyster reefs).

6) Support the National Export Initiative by promoting a level playing field for U.S. aquaculture businesses to engage in international trade, working to remove foreign trade

barriers and enforcing our rights under U.S. trade agreements.

7) Work collaboratively with our federal, state, regional, local, academic, and business partners to support the development of sustainable aquaculture in locations compatible with other uses.

To implement this policy, the DOC and its bureaus will work in partnership with other federal agencies, Congress, state, local, and tribal governments, industry, academia, non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders at the national, regional, and local levels to: 1) Deliver U.S. government services to aquaculture and related industries in a comprehensive and coordinated manner.

2) Provide technical assistance to state and local governments to help plan and develop marine resource infrastructure needs including in coastal communities.

3) Accelerate the implementation of sustainable aquaculture production

methods by developing pilot, demonstration, and technology transfer projects with seafood and related industries, nongovernmental organizations, state and local governments, federal agencies, and other partners.

4) Enhance the capabilities of federal research laboratories and participating research partners to provide the necessary ecological, technological, economic, and social data and analysis to effectively and sustainably develop, support, manage, and regulate private and public sector aquaculture.

5) Develop an efficient, coordinated, transparent, and timely science-based permitting process and regulatory structure to ensure that marine aquaculture facilities are properly designed and sited and incorporate appropriate technologies and practices to minimize adverse impacts.”

At that time, the DOC and NOAA in particular faced criticisms from various groups around the country.

On the one hand, some advocacy

groups felt the concepts outlined by the Department were too vague and lacked sufficient oversight and enforcement commitments, while others indicated that they reflected too much dialogue and not enough initiative. Given the current situation with global trade, and with seafood trade in particular, it will be interesting to see if DOC’s recently stated goals finally gain some traction in Washington and elsewhere.

AquaTactics adds new Veterinarian United States.- AquaTactics Fish Health recently announced the addition of Dr. Kyle Farmer to their team. Dr. Farmer earned his Doctor of Veterinary Medicine from North Carolina State U. and a Bachelor’s in marine biology from U. of North Carolina at Wilmington. In his capacity as: “Veterinarian and Professional Services Manager,” he will be providing fish health consultation and fish health medicine support to public stock enhancement facilities and private aquaculture clients, both nationally and internationally.

“I am thrilled to enter this field with such an exceptionally talented

group of professionals at AquaTactics Fish Health”, comments Dr. Farmer. “This company has been providing unparalleled service to the aquaculture and fish culture community for nearly a decade through health consultation, products, and research. I could not ask for better individuals to work with.

AquaTactics has an intimate understanding of the profession and the growth that is projected. I am excited to offer my services to the community as we work together to solve the problems that face our growing stock enhancement sector and private industry”.

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INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis research indicates urgent need to prepare the next generation of aquatic farmers for climate change.

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hey examined potential impacts on finfish and bivalve production around the globe, and their results suggest that climate change is already affecting producers. Projections for future impacts are sobering, to say the least.

The authors modelled and mapped the effect of warming ocean conditions on marine aquaculture production potential over the next century, based on thermal tolerance and growth data of 180 cultured finfish and bivalve species. Their models indicated the potential for heterogeneous patterns of gains and losses, but an overall greater probability of declines worldwide. When they accounted for multiple drivers of species growth, including shifts in temperature, chlorophyll and ocean acidification, even greater declines in bivalve aquaculture were projected when compared with finfish production.

“Aquatic farmers are on the frontlines of climate change. Some are already seeing the effects and know they need to be prepared for what’s to come.

But that’s going to take planning by not only the farmers, but governments too,” said lead author Halley Froehlich, a postdoctoral researcher at NCEAS. “Climate change is impacting marine aquatic farmers now, and it’s likely to get worse for most of the world if we don’t take mitigating measures,” she emphasized.

“There’s a lot of push for ‘blue growth’ in aquaculture in both developing and developed regions, but

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On September 10, researchers from NCEAS’ Conservation Aquaculture Research Team at UC Santa Barbara published one of the first comprehensive analyses of how climate change will impact marine aquaculture in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution.

less effort has gone into how to develop adaptive measures under climate change, mostly because we do not have a good sense of the level or location of impacts,” said Froehlich. “Our study begins to shed light on these unknowns.”

According to the model outputs, Indo-Pacific countries such as China, Bangladesh, and Indonesia – will likely feel the biggest impacts. Notably, these are currently among the largest producers of marine aquaculture species.

Based on current trends, declines in finfish productivity could be as high as 30 percent in some areas by the year 2050. Taking into account all factors, the researchers report the risk of a complete loss of suitable waters for bivalves.

Nonetheless, in some areas aquaculture production could improve un-

der climate change scenarios. Areas near polar waters could become well suited for production of some species.

“The industry is still in its growing phase, and that allows some flexibility,” said Froehlich.

Results suggest there will be mixed results for virtually all countries with the potential to farm the ocean. “The issue is less about whether or not we will be able to grow enough fish in the ocean under a changing climate globally – we can – and instead about who wins and who loses, and by how much,” said co-author Ben Halpern, director of NCEAS and a professor at UCSB. “Climate change will likely have highly inequitable consequences among ocean farmers.”

“Governments provide permits and leases for growing different species, and setting those locations now with the future in mind will help avoid putting things in riskier places,” he said. “If you were a land farmer, would you want to buy property that will be plagued by drought in 15 years?

I doubt it. The same thinking should be applied to ocean farming.” The authors added that financial support for the study came from the Zegar Family Foundation.

Court Stops Industrial Fish Farms in Gulf of Mexico

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n late September, an unusual coalition of fishing and public interest groups, represented by the Center for Food Safety, won a lawsuit challenging the Department of Commerce’s rules that would have permitted, for the first time, industrial finfish farms offshore in U.S. waters.

“This is a landmark victory for protecting our oceans, for fishing communities and conservationists,” said George Kimbrell, CFS Legal Director and lead counsel in the case.

“Allowing industrial net-pen aquaculture and its known environmental harms in the Gulf of Mexico was a grave threat. Very simply, as the Court properly held, aquaculture is not ‘fishing.’ Such harm cannot be allowed under existing fisheries law never intended for that purpose.”

The rules challenged in the lawsuit focused on the Gulf of Mexico, but also could have paved the way for fish farm permits all around the U.S. The Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana ruled that existing fisheries management laws were never intended to regulate aquaculture (the farming of fish in pens or cages), concluding that the Department of Commerce “acted outside of its statutory authority…”

Marianne Cufone, local counsel and Executive Director of the Recirculating Farms Coalition (RFC) said, “This ruling makes clear that existing fisheries law cannot be manipulated to develop and expand marine finfish farming in the Gulf or other U.S. waters. Now we can focus on stopping Congress from passing new laws to promote this outdated and unnecessary industry.”

Since the 1980’s, Congress has periodically attempted to pass laws promoting marine finfish farms, but all failed due to massive public opposition. Federal agencies then tried to permit fish farms under existing fisheries management laws. The lawsuit stopped that, so Congress is back on it. Senator Roger Wicker of Mis-

sissippi introduced the Advancing the Quality and Understanding of American Aquaculture (AQUAA) Act and a similar bill is expected in the House of Representatives soon. RFC and others plan to again turn their attention to Capitol Hill.

“We applaud today’s ruling! We must protect our ocean resources from the many threats posed by offshore aquaculture,” said Cynthia Sarthou, Executive Director of the Gulf Restoration Network, another plaintiff in the case.

“All of us who depend on the Gulf are profoundly grateful that the Court has struck down these dangerous regulations that would have polluted our waters and damaged our way of life,” said Gulf Fishermen’s Association attorney William Ward.

“Today is a great day.”

Wenonah Hauter, Executive Director of plaintiff organization Food & Water Watch, said,” Today’s decision reaffirms that Congress never intended for the federal government to allow massive factory fish farms in federal waters. The Court recognized that this irresponsible plan was an overreach by the federal government that would give away our public resources to another polluting industry.”

The plaintiff groups on the lawsuit make up a broad array of interests, including commercial, economic, recreational, farming and conserva-

tion purposes: Gulf Fishermen’s Association; Gulf Restoration Network; Charter Fishermen’s Association; Destin Charter Boat Association; Alabama Charter Fishing Association; Fish for America, USA, Inc.; Florida Wildlife Federation; Recirculating Farms Coalition; and Food & Water Watch.

NOAA remains committed to expanding sustainable U.S. aquaculture: Statement on Recent Court Ruling on Aquaculture NOAA is considering whether to appeal the Eastern District of Louisiana’s finding that NOAA does not have regulatory authority to regulate aquaculture under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Given conflicting court decisions and the desire for regulatory certainty, NOAA supports congressional efforts to clarify the agency’s statutory authority to regulate aquaculture.

NOAA remains committed to expanding the social, environmental, and economic benefits of sustainable marine aquaculture in the U.S. It is important to note that this ruling is not a prohibition on marine aquaculture, either nationally or in the Gulf of Mexico, and we will continue to work with stakeholders through existing policies and legislation to increase aquaculture permitting efficiency and predictability. » 11

INDUSTRY RESEARCHNEWS REPORT

Palazzo and Peterson Introduce Bill to Advance Aquaculture in the United States

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epresentatives Steven Palazzo (MS-4) and Collin Peterson (MN-7) introduced the Advancing the Quality and Understanding of American Aquaculture Act or the AQUAA Act on September 28, to increase the United States’ involvement and production of healthy, sustainable, and affordable seafood.

“This bill helps develop an industry that will create jobs, support our coastal communities, and put us on the right track to reducing our seafood trade deficit in a safe and sustainable way. The United States does not have a comprehensive, nationwide permitting system for marine aquaculture in federal waters. Our bill seeks to rectify this by establishing an office under NOAA that would be charged with coordinating the federal permitting process.” Palazzo said. “It would also fund research and extension services for several existing aquaculture priorities.”

“Aquaculture is a fast-growing agriculture industry that is creating jobs and improving our country’s food security,” said Peterson. “It also creates a market for soybeans and corn as they provide nutritious aquafeed.

Our bill will streamline the permitting process and build upon research and development efforts that are underway.”

“There is growing consensus among scientists, resource managers and industry that aquaculture could expand our capacity for safe, local, sustainable, seafood,” said Dr. Kelly Lucas, Director of the Thad Cochran Marine Aquaculture Center in the School of Ocean Science and Technology at the University of Southern Mississippi. “This bill addresses the need to provide regulatory certainty for businesses to help facilitate investment in aquaculture and for government, universities and industry to 12 »

partner together to address research needs and advance sustainable domestic aquaculture.”

“Cargill believes strongly in the United States’ ability to increase domestic production of healthful, sustainable and affordable seafood. The AQUAA Act represents one of the biggest opportunities to achieve this goal because it establishes a muchneeded framework for offshore fish farming in U.S. federal waters,” said Kathryn Unger, the Managing Director of Cargill Aqua Nutrition North America. “Increased U.S. seafood production through offshore aquaculture means new markets for Minnesota’s soybean producers, job opportunities for coastal communities, and increased availability of a healthy, sustainable protein for American consumers.”

The Advancing the Quality and Understanding of American Aquaculture Act, or the AQUAA Act, seeks to increase the United States’ involvement in the aquaculture industry by enabling the development of a healthy aquaculture industry in federal waters.

This marks the first time comprehensive, offshore aquaculture legislation has been introduced in the House that specifically addresses permitting harmonization for marine aquaculture. As of now, multiple agencies oversee the permitting process that adhere to different requirements, making it challenging to obtain necessary permits in a timely and cost-effective manner.

The bill establishes an Office of Marine Aquaculture within the National Marine Fisheries Service at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) headquarters and regional offices to lead coordinating the federal permitting process. The legislation also establishes a permit to allow individuals time to

Steven Palazzo.

Collin Peterson.

secure financing for aquaculture operation and make no changes to current environmental standards, but instead uphold and maintain existing standards.

The United States currently imports over 90% of the seafood we consume and half the imports are aquaculture products. With a growing population and an ever increasing demand for seafood, it has become clear

that as of right now, the United States does not produce enough seafood to meet domestic demand.

The bill funds research and extension services that currently exist while establishing new research initiatives.

Congressman Palazzo serves on the Subcommittee for Commerce, Justice, and Science on the House Appropriations Committee that authorizes funding for the Department of Commerce that oversees operations at the NOAA.

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ARTICLE

Beneficial effects of dietary probiotics mixture

on hemato-immunology and cell apoptosis of Labeo rohita fingerlings reared at higher water temperatures

Probiotics play an important role in growth increment, immune By: Sipra Mohapatra1,3,5, Tapas Chakraborty2,3, Ashisa K. Prusty4, Kurchetti PaniPrasad5 and Kedar N. Mohanta6

enhancement and stress mitigation in fish. Increasing temperature is a major concern in present aquaculture practices as it markedly deteriorates the health condition and reduces growth in fish.

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lthough reported to survive between 18.3 and 37.8 C, without any mortality, carps, including Labeo rohita, show better growth and good metabolic functions at an ideal water temperature range of 24–28C. Recently, much emphasis is laid on the study of the effects of rising temperature on the immune status of aquatic animals, and the possible ways of ameliorating the health of the fish under such environmental conditions. Induction of the stress responsive heat shock protein (HSP) 70, may accelerate apoptosis in various fish tissues. HSPs are also considered to be key markers for fluctuating temperature and it has been shown that the protective mechanism of an animal, influenced by normal intestinal microflora commonly taken as probiotics, is due to an increase in the levels of the putative protective HSP under stress conditions.

The present work was designed to investigate the effects of a probiotic-enriched diet in enhancing the immune status of the fish by analyzing their growth, hemato-immunological parameters and progression of cell death at different rearing water temperatures.

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Materials and Methods L. rohita fingerlings were procured from Palghar fish farm, Maharashtra, India, and transported to the wet laboratory of Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Mumbai, India, with the provision of continuous aeration. The fish were subjected to salt treatment (1%) for 5 min to ameliorate the handling stress and then acclimatized to the laboratory conditions for 15 days. During the acclimatization period, the fish were fed twice a day.

Three hundred and sixty uniformly sized fingerlings (average weight 8.4 grams) were randomly distributed

in eight treatment groups (T1–T8) with three replicates (stocking density was maintained at 15 fish/300 L of rearing water) following a completely randomized design. Using a digital thermostat, the temperatures were gradually increased by 1 C per day from the initial water temperature (28 C) to the target temperatures (31, 34 and 37 C). The temperature acclimatization was initiated in such a way that all the treatments reached the target temperature on the same day.

After reaching the desired temperatures, fish were fed with experimental diets for the next 30 days. The different experimental temperatures the

fish were kept at (including the ambient temperature 28 C for L. rohita, which was used as control group) were T1 & T5 (28 C), T2 & T6 (31 C), T3 & T7 (34 C) and T4 & T8 (37 C).

After the acclimatization period, treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4 were fed with the basal diet supplemented with a combination of three probiotics (B. subtilis, L. lactis and S. cerevisiae) (1:1:1) (1011 cfu kg21) whereas the other groups (T5, T6, T7 and T8) were fed with basal diet (without probiotics) for an experimental period of 30 days. Feed was given at 2.5% of body weight, twice a day at 8:00 and 18:00 h under normal light regime (light/dark: 12/12 h). Unconsumed feed and faecal matters were siphoned out daily and nearly 50% water was exchanged daily throughout the experiment period.

Pure strains of B. subtilis, L. lactis and S. cerevisiae were purchased from the Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC), Chandigarh, India. A growth curve was established for each probiotic by OD600 measurements of broth cultures, in order to determine the concentration of probiotic to be added to the feed. The three probiotics were added together in equal proportions (1:1:1) to make a final concentration of 1011 cfu kg-1 feed. All feed ingredients were mixed properly, steamed for 20 min and cooled. Afterwards, the required mixture of probiotic culture (re-suspended in PBS) was

mixed into the basal feed and made into pellets.

At the end of the feeding trial, four fish from each replicate tank of the different experimental groups were anaesthetized using clove oil (50 ml L-1) and blood was drawn from the caudal vein using a 24 gauge micro syringe coated with 2.7% EDTA solution. The blood collected from these four fishes was pooled together, and used as one biological replicate. Three biological replicates were prepared, one from each treatment replicate. The blood was transferred to a test tube coated with EDTA, and stored at -30 C until use. The Nitroblue Tetrazolium Assay (NBT) was performed following a modified standard protocol [24] to measure the superoxide ion production. Blood glucose was estimated by the method

of Nelson and Somogyi (1945) and as modified by Oser (1965). The Total Erythrocyte Count (RBC) and the Total Leucocyte Count (WBC) was determined using a Neubauer-type hemacytometer. Toission’s solution and Turk’s solution were used to dilute blood for RBC and WBC, respectively.

For serum collection, another four fish were sampled from each replicate tank of the different experimental groups. Blood was drawn without using any anticoagulant and collected in an eppendorf tube. The tubes were kept in an inclined position for 2 h at room temperature, allowing the blood to clot. The samples were then centrifuged in a cooling centrifuge at 3000 g for 5 min. The serum from all four fish of one treatment replicate were pooled together in a dry ep» 15

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pendorf, and used as one biological replicate. Three biological replicates were prepared, one from each treatment replicate. The serum was stored at -20 C until use. Qualigens kits (Qualigens Fine Chemicals, Mumbai, India) were used to analyze the different serum parameters. Serum globulin was calculated by deducting the albumin value from the total protein value. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Acid phosphatase (ACP) contents were calculated using the Qualigens kit (Qualigens Diagnostics, Mumbai, India). Serum HSP was analyzed using the Anti-Human HSP 70 (Total) ELISA kit (Stressgen, USA).

The serum myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was measured according to Quade and Roth (1997) with minor modification. The immunoglobulin level in the serum was determined by the ELISA assay (Swain et al. 2007) with slight modification.

Four anesthetized fish from each replicate tank of the different experimental groups were sacrificed and fresh samples of liver, gill and kidney were immediately fixed in 10% neu16 Âť

tral buffer formalin (NBF). The tissue samples were embedded in paraffin wax and cut into serial 5 mm sections. Cell death analysis was carried out using the in situ cell death kit (Roche, USA) following manufacturer’s protocol. Additionally, the slides were counter-stained with Hoechst dye to visualize the nucleus. The total numbers of fluorescence positive apoptotic cells in a group of 1000 Hoechst positive cells were counted in each of 10 randomly selected areas (fixed) per section. The mean data from 10 continuous sections of 4 fish (from the same treatment replicate) were used for calculating the biological average apoptotic cell count.

Results The different levels of temperature showed a significant difference (P<0.01) on the % body weight gain of Labeo rohita fingerlings (Fig. 1).

Significant increase (P<0.01) in % weight gain was noticed in the group maintained at 28 and 31 C, while significant reduction (P<0.01) was observed in fish maintained at 34 and 37

C, respectively. Interestingly, the probiotic fed fish showed better growth than the non-probiotic fed fish. Significant (P<0.01) interaction effect of probiotic and temperature level was also observed on the % weight gain of the fingerlings. No mortality was observed in any of the tanks at any point of the experimental period.

There was a significant effect (P<0.01) of different temperature on respiratory burst activity. NBT activity exhibited a decreasing trend with an increase in rearing temperature.

However, there was no significant (P>0.01) effect of the interaction of probiotics and temperature on the respiratory burst activity. On the other hand, blood glucose levels showed a completely opposite pattern (Table 1). Fish fed with probiotic supplemented diet had lower blood glucose levels in comparison to the nonsupplemented groups. Blood glucose levels were also significantly (P<0.01) affected by probiotics, temperature and their interactions.

Dietary probiotics significantly (P<0.01) affected the total erythro-

cyte count with the highest count recorded in T1 group (2.01±0.27) (Table 1). The total erythrocyte count decreased significantly (P<0.01) with increasing temperatures. Significant (P<0.01) interactive effect of probiotics and temperature was noticed for the total erythrocyte count. The total leucocyte count was significantly (P<0.01) reduced in the probiotic fed fish compared to non-probiotic fed fish. WBC count was also significantly (P<0.01) affected by the interaction of probiotics and temperature.

Serum total protein and globulin contents were significantly (P<0.01) reduced with increasing rearing temperatures. Significant increased values (P<0.01) of total protein and globulin were observed in the treatments fed with probiotic incorporated diets. Serum albumin to globulin ratio (A/G ratio) was significantly (P<0.01) reduced in fish fed with the probiotic incorporated diet and increased with elevated water temperature. Increasing temperature level had a significant (P<0.01) effect on the serum ALP and ACP content. However, reduced ALP and ACP contents were recorded in fish fed with probiotic supplemented diet. A significant (P<0.01) increase in the serum MPO activity was noticed in the probiotic fed fish.

The serum MPO activity showed a significant difference (P<0.01) in the interaction of temperature and probiotics, with the highest value being recorded in T1 (4.08±0.26). The probiotic fed groups showed nearly two times lower HSP70 activity than nonprobiotic fed group (Table 2). It was observed that the HSP70 production in the body increased significantly (P<0.01) with the rise in water temperature. The antibody production, in terms of IgM production, was also significantly (P<0.01) increased in the probiotic fed fish. However, antibody production decreased significantly (P<0.01) with the increase in temperature. Significant interaction (P<0.01) effect of probiotics and temperature on IgM production in the fish was also observed.

The concentration of apoptotic cells in different organs with respect to change in water temperature in different treatment groups are presented in Figs 2A-L. Similar to other parameters tested in this study, the highest temperature group (T8) depicted the highest density of apoptotic cell in gills, kidney and liver sections (Figs.

2A–K). Amongst all tissues that were tested, gill sections showed the highest density of apoptotic cells per 1000 cells counted (Figs. 2J–L). Pro-

biotic supplementation helped to significantly reduce (p<0.01) the rate of apoptosis in kidney and liver at higher temperature. However, no distinct differences (P>0.01) were observed between the gills of fish from probiotic and non-probiotic fed groups (Fig. 2K).

Summarizing the above findings, dietary multispecies probiotic supplementation, with two bacterial species (B. subtilis and L. lactis) and one yeast (S. cerevisiae), resulted in enhanced growth and better hemato-immunological status of the L. rohita fingerlings reared at higher water temperature. Probiotic addition might have reduced the temperature associated stresses, which in turn lowered the apoptosis in probiotic fed fish.

However, pond trials are necessary to implement this multispecies probiotic enhanced and nutritionally balanced diet in commercial tropical carp farms.

Adapted from: PLoS ONE 9(6): e100929. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0100929 1 Laboratory of Bioresource, NIBB, Okazaki, Japan, 2 Division of Molecular Environmental Endocrinology, NIBB, Okazaki, Japan, 3 South Ehime Fisheries Research Center, Ehime University, Ainan, Japan, 4 Project Directorate for Farming System Research, Meerut, India, 5 Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, India, 6 Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, India

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NEWS FROM THE AADAP

News from the Aquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership Workshop News The Aquatic Drug Approval Coordination Workshop was held in conjunction with the Western Fish Disease Workshop from June 19th-21st in Bozeman, MT and was a huge success! Over 80 aquaculture professionals attended the AADAP portion of the workshop, and about 120 attendJulie Schroeter, Molly Bowman, Niccole Wandelear, Guppy ed the Western Fish Disease portion. Blair and Bonnie Johnson.

The 2019 AADAP Workshop will be FDA webpage that answers held on July 30th-August 1st, 2019 in Bozeman, MT. Stay tuned for up- “What should I expect during an inspection?” From this link, the Invesdates on next year’s workshop! tigations Operations Manual can also be accessed: Veterinary Feed Directives https://www.fda.g ov/ForIn(Workshop follow-up) FDA/CVM has asked us to share the dustr y/FDABasicsforIndustr y/ following links for more information ucm237624.htm FDA’s webpage with helpful inpertaining to the presentations given formation related to VFD topics: on VFDs and FDA inspections: https://www.fda.gov/animalvetForm FDA 482, Notice of Inerinary/developmentapprovalprospection: https://www.fda.g ov/down- cess/ucm071807.htm loads/ICECI/Inspections/IOM/ Aquaculture America 2019 UCM127428.pdf AADAP is planning to co-host a special session with the AFWA Drug Approval Working Group (DAWG) at Aquaculture America 2019, to be held in New Orleans, LA on March 7th-11th, 2019. The preliminary title of the session is “Aquatic Drug Needs Surveys and Research Updates”. If you’re interested in being a part of this session, please contact Marilyn “Guppy” Blair for more information.

Meeting attendees.

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Marilyn ‘Guppy’ Blair.

nois University Carbondale, and has been most recently employed at the USFWS Northeast Fishery Center’s Population Genetics Laboratory in Lamar, Pennsylvania. Julie will be spending about 80% of her time with the AADAP research team and 20% of her time assisting with the INAD program.

Also, please join us in wishing a hearty “farewell” to Molly Bowman as she leaves the AADAP program to pursue other life interests. Molly has been a member of the AADAP team for 18 years, and has contributed a wealth of knowledge, experience, and hard work to the program.

We’re sorry to see her go, but excited for her as she begins her new adventure! The AADAP team may be a bit smaller these days, but we’re still going strong!

Drug Update CVM approved the supplemental new animal drug application (NADA) for Terramycin® 200 for Fish. The supplemental approval of TerramyFarewell to Molly Bowman and cin® 200 for Fish (oxytetracycline) Type A medicated article provides Welcome to Julie Schroeter Please join us in welcoming Julie for a change in the bacterial species Schroeter to the AADAP team. Julie of Aeromonas liquefaciens to Aeromonas comes to AADAP with a Masters in hydrophila in the approved indications Animal Science from Southern Illi- for salmonids and catfish.

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Evaluation of a national operational salmon lice monitoring system —From physics to fish By: Mari Skuggedal Myksvoll , Anne Dagrun Sandvik, Jon Albretsen, Lars Asplin, Ingrid Askeland Johnsen, Ørjan Karlsen, Nils Melsom Kristensen, Arne Melsom, Jofrid Skardhamar and Bjørn Ådlandsvik

The Norwegian government has decided that the aquaculture industry shall grow, provided that the growth is environmentally sustainable. That sustainability is scored based on the mortality of wild salmonids caused by parasitic salmon lice.

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almon lice infestation pressure has traditionally been monitored in Norwegian waters through catching wild sea trout and Arctic char using nets or traps or by trawling after Atlantic salmon postsmolts. However, since the Norwegian mainland coastline is nearly 25,000 km, complementary methods are needed in order to give complete results. Here, we present a modeling method which includes both hydrodynamics and lice behavior to predict lice infestation pressure. Environmentally sustainable salmon aquaculture growth will be implemented through the division of the Norwegian coast into 13 production zones. In each of these, the only environmental indicator used to measure sustainability is at present the effect of salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) released from salmonid farms, on the mortality of wild salmonid fish.

Sea lice hatch directly from paired eggstrings as pelagic nauplius I, which molts into pelagic nauplius II, and thereafter to the infective copepodid stage which remains pelagic until it attaches to a host. During the planktonic stages (nauplii and copepodid) the salmon louse is known to react to external stimuli by vertical swimming. The lice react to light by migrating towards the surface during the day and sink down during night. At the same time, it has 20 »

been shown in laboratory experiments that salmon lice avoid low-salinity water. The low-salinity avoidance is assumed to be stronger than the light attraction.

Over the last ~15 years, models based on hydrodynamic circulation have shown that water currents may transport the lice tens of kilometers from the source farm. Models have

also revealed lice densities with great spatial patchiness. Lice aggregate in small areas, often along land and within eddies. The high temporal and spatial variability of the current field make realistic salmon lice dispersion patterns difficult to calculate without knowledge of hydrodynamic circulation. The relatively long pelagic stage where larvae drift with water currents means that the lice may infest a large area, and that the size of the infective area may be heavily affected by temperature as this affects longevity of the infectious stage.

Atlantic salmon post-smolt leave their rivers during spring and are exposed to salmon lice in the fjord and coastal region as they pass through on their way towards the open ocean.

The post-smolt migration starts in the beginning of May in southern Norway, and the timing is delayed northwards, reaching the end of June in northern Norway. Sea trout and Arctic char spend more time in the coast or fjord during summer and are therefore susceptible to elevated infestation pressure for up to four months. Field monitoring is focused on these two periods; the first period, which is most relevant for salmon post-smolt migration, and the second period which is most relevant for sea trout and arctic char, with several teams operating along the entire coast fishing for wild salmonids with trawls, traps and gillnets.

The focus in this paper will be on the first period early in spring. The government has decided that the impact of salmon lice on wild salmon is the most important indicator controlling the aquaculture industry growth.

However, it is important to bear in mind that the impact of salmon lice on sea trout can be substantial, and often even stronger than the impact on salmon.

Methods The Norwegian Meteorological Institute (MET Norway) is responsible for operational ocean monitoring and forecasting of the Norwegian waters.

The operational suite of ocean models at MET Norway utilize a one-way nested system consisting of three ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling System, www.myroms.org) models.

The NorKyst800 is the innermost model covering the Norwegian coast with 800 m horizontal resolution. It was put in operational mode late in June 2012. Since then, daily averaged model results for the salinity, temper-

ature, velocity fields and sea surface height have been publicly available.

We compared results for temperature and salinity during the period January 2015â&#x20AC;&#x201D;December 2016 with observational data. During this time period observations from vessels were taken at a total of 4732 positions inside the model domain (2015: 2601; 2016: 2131) and these data were retrieved from CMEMS Âť 21

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products. In the tables (Tables 1 and 2) that show evaluation statistics the results are computed over 5 depth ranges. For Table 2 the metrics were calculated between isohaline surfaces.

Here, only observations from which temperature and salinity data are both available, are considered.

The salmon lice model was developed with the purpose to map the

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horizontal distribution of infectious salmon lice from aquaculture sites.

The release of newly hatched lice larvae (nauplii) is calculated based on number of adult female lice reported from the aquaculture sites. As the lice are hatched and released to drift freely in the ocean, the model calculates the transport along the currents.

The number of eggs hatched into the water is calculated based on weekly reported temperature at 3 m depth, number of female lice per fish and number of fish at each site. We assume that a female can produce 150 eggs per string. In the model, the salmon lice nauplii are released from all active farm locations represented by 5 superparticles released every hour. The representation of salmon lice using superparticles was done to simulate the dispersion of a great number of particles and include the mortality in an efficient way where the computational power needed for the calculations is kept to a minimum.

Each of the 5 superparticles represent 1/5 of the total nauplii number calculated for each release, regardless of the nauplii number released from the farm. The maximum number of particles are 3,360,000.

To calculate the transport of lice from a release position the lice dispersion model uses the horizontal current components and the position of every lice particle is stored every hour. If the lice-particles were about to drift onshore, they were held at position until a shift in the currents transported them away from the land border. Lice reaching the outer ocean border were removed from further calculations. The age of the lice particles was calculated in degreedays, and lice were assumed to enter

the infective copepodid stage at 40 degree-days. Past 170 degree-days all lice were assumed to be dead from senescence and removed from calculations.

All salmon lice were given the ability to swim vertically. The swimming velocity was set to 5*10­‑4 ms-1 for all planktonic stages. The direction was set to be upwards towards the surface when the light level exceeded a critical level of 2*10‑5 μmol photon s-1m-2 during the nauplii stages and 0.392 μmol photon s-1m-2 during the copepodid stage. When exposed to salinity levels under 20 the lice swam down. When exposed to low salinity levels and light conditions, the low salinity avoidance was assumed to be the strongest trigger, and the lice swam down. The surface light (L0) at every salmon lice position is calculated from latitude (φ) and time of day

(t). From the surface to depth (z) the light is assumed to decrease, where the attenuation coefficient (k) was set constant k = 0.2.

Due to lack of precise knowledge of sub-grid scale processes and fluctuating swimming motion by the salmon louse itself, all lice were given a random movement component in both the horizontal and vertical direction. This is justified by the relatively high spatial and temporal resolution in the model forcing. The salmon lice model was run from 1st of April to 31st of August. When dividing by the grid area, the lice concentration is expressed as number of lice copepodids per m2 per day.

Fish farmers report biomass and number of fish monthly to the Directorate of Fisheries (Fiskeridirektoratet). Temperature at 3 m and counts of salmon lice, in three classes: 1) ses-

sile lice, 2) mobile lice and 3) adult female lice are reported weekly to The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet). The regulations require that the lice must be counted on at least 20 fish every week (10 fish in the period June 1st to January 31st), covering half of the cages. These data are stored in a database at Norwegian Marine Data center at the Institute of Marine Research (IMR). A weekly summary of these data is provided to the model group. Monthly data have been linearly interpolated to weekly values, to have the same time resolution as the other data.

The IMR coordinates a national program designed to monitor lice infestation pressure on wild salmon and trout. Sampling is performed at several regular and irregular stations along the Norwegian coast using traps or gillnets, staying at each site for approximately two weeks. Some stations are chosen for continuation of ongoing time series, some to ensure complete geographical coverage and some are chosen based on predicted elevated infestation pressure from the salmon lice model. The sampling is focused on two periods every year: May to June (during the smolt run) and June to August (during the sea-phase of the sea trout and char). We will only focus on the first period here, which is most relevant for the salmon smolt migration. » 23

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The analysis only included fish smaller than 150 g, based on the assumption that small fish migrate shorter distances and therefore the observed infestation pressure would be a better representation of local lice abundance near where they were caught. For describing infestation pressure, young louse stages were assumed to better represent the local pressure the fish had experienced just prior to being trapped, rather than adults that could have been attached to the fish for months. Relative intensity, the total number of lice per gram fish, was calculated on an individual level and averaged over all

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fish including both infected and noninfected. Prevalence was the number of infected fish divided by the total number of fish.

When comparing this kind of model results with observations in a single point, the model output has to be processed and information about spatial variability is lost as the results are merged over several grid cells. It is reasonable to assume that the fish caught in a specific location had been swimming around this location, but within an unknown radius of the fishing location. We have therefore included many different averaging areas to investigate the sensitivity

to averaging area. Horizontally the modeled density is averaged within boxes of different size, 1x1, 3x3, 5x5 and up to 29x29 grid points, centered around the observation point. The output is then summed over three weeks, including the two weeks of sampling and one week prior to sampling to account for lice that infested the fish prior to the sampling period.

Results We compared modelled temperature and salinity from January 2015 to December 2016 with observational data. Generally, there was a negative bias in temperature and a positive bias in salinity in the model results, meaning that the model generally simulates colder and more saline water than was observed. The salinity bias was particularly strong near the surface. In an attempt to ameliorate the discrepancies in results for salinity, nudging of the 3D salinity to the model configuration which provides

boundary conditions were introduced in the nested model system.

The results suggest that the nudging has improved the results in z layer 2 and in the layers below.

To evaluate the quality of the modeled lice density, we compared the results with observed lice infestation pressure on the wild caught trout and char through mean abundance of young stages and averaged relative intensity. The correlation was generally higher when including larger model areas, and higher when using averaged relative intensity from the observations. When the three years were merged, the Spearman rank correlation still stayed above 0.7 for domains larger than 13x13. The correlations started flattening out at grid size 9x9 and the first top was reached at 11x11 (for averaged relative intensity in 2015), while the other variables reached maximum values at larger grid sizes and some converged towards a constant value.

Implementation of a national operational monitoring system allows for a quick identification of high risk areas where salmon and trout will be especially vulnerable for salmon lice infections. It is important to identify “hot spots” within the production zones and document with observations the salmon lice intensity in these areas. It is also of crucial importance to have the possibility to monitor the extent of a high risk area within the production zone and the time evolution of this fraction. Altogether this makes it possible for the government to initiate necessary measures to mitigate the high infestation pressure when it becomes a problem for wild salmonid fish.

The model system we have described here is well suited for providing the infestation pressure for calculating numbers of lice on salmon smolt migrating through a fjord system. The operational model system is also suitable for developing a lice

mitigation strategy for fish farmers.

The system can determine how the treatment, including different timing, at the various farms in a production zone affects the regional infestation pressure. Next, it is possible to test various model scenarios where different positioning and size of farms can be evaluated, in addition to increases and decreases in production. By using two complementary data sources; the operational model and wild fish data, we can provide an improved system for assessment of risk and sustainability, which forms the foundation for knowledge-based advice to management authorities.

Adapted from: Myksvoll MS, Sandvik AD, Albretsen J, Asplin L, Johnsen IA, Karlsen Ø, et al. (2018) Evaluation of a national operational salmon lice monitoring system—From physics to fish. PLoS ONE 13(7): e0201338. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201338

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Instilling a

Culture of Safety in Aquaculture By: Alvaro Garcia, DVM, PhD

Agriculture is one of the riskiest worker occupations, and aquaculture is no exception.

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s of 2018 nearly 18 million workers worldwide were employed in different segments of the aquaculture industry. A recent report (2018) by the Occupational and Environmental Health Research Group of the University of Stirling, Scotland, found the hazards in this industry include those in stock-holding units (e.g. ponds, racks and cages), as well as feeding, harvesting, processing, and transport. Other workplace injuries in the sector were associated with machinery, tools, boats, vehicles, drowning, falls, electrocution and bites. This article will address some of the most common hazards identified in this industry and ways to prevent them.

Safety Risks Associated With Aquaculture Although agriculture and aquaculture share some common safety 26 Âť

risks, there are others that are more specific to each sector. Crops and livestock farm workers have numerous safety, health, environmental, biological, and respiratory hazards.

Aquaculture, though, entails unique and risky chores that pose added danger, including working around water and working at night. A quick review of worldwide fatalities associated with aquaculture, while writing this article, revealed a high incidence of electrocutions as cause of death.

This is to be expected, since water and electricity is a deadly combination. There are no in-depth studies however, that reveal the incidence of these accidents.

A relatively recent review (Myers, M. L., 2010, J. Agromedicine 15(4):412-26.) looked at fatal accidents and nonfatal injuries associated with aquaculture. As mentioned above, electrocution was a relatively frequent cause of death, as were

drowning, crushing-related injuries, hydrogen sulfide poisoning, and fatal head injuries. Non-fatal injuries were similar to those happening in other agricultural settings, such as slips, trips, and falls. Also reported were machinery/equipment accidents, strains and sprains, chemical accidents and fires. In this same review, there was an assessment of risk factors that led to these safety issues.

These included cranes and their potential for contact with power lines.

In addition, tractors and all-terrain vehicles can be prone to overturn particularly when driven over eroded levees or berms. There are also safety risks strictly related to water issues such as rushing water, slippery surfaces, and high-pressure sprayers.

Management-related mishaps are also prevalent and often associated with poorly illuminated areas during night-time work, employees working alone, poor/or completely lacking

workplace training and the absence of personal flotation devices. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that employers provide a safe workplace.

Employers must correct hazardous working conditions that could cause injury or death of their employees.

Here are some of the most common risks and ways to prevent them.

1. Electrocution Electricity and water are not a good combination and, regrettably, we have both in aquaculture -oftentimes in close proximity. One of the aquaculture systems where OSHA identified electrocution as a hazard was in pond fish culture. Electrocution can happen from direct contact with overhead power lines but also from

equipment close to, or even in the water. In addition, OSHA considers the presence of power cords laying around a potential risk in any fish culture system. Workers should exercise caution when working around power lines or live electrical wires, and they should also be aware of potential risks around wet areas, including ponds and tanks. This is particularly true when working outside and evaluating damages after a storm.

Downed power lines constitute a very dangerous hazard that may not only be weather related but also created by accidentally downing utility poles. If you happen to hit a power line or electric wire, remain in the vehicle since the tires will help insulate you and your partner(s). Alert other coworkers to stay clear of the area until someone turns off the power.

This is critical and one should always turn off the power before leaving the vehicle or attempting any repairs. Âť 27

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2. Drowning This is a risk undoubtedly inherent to working in aquaculture systems.

According to OSHA, this is one of the three most frequent hazards in pond culture (the other two being electrocution and being crushed).

Drowning is not just the result of individuals falling into tanks or ponds.

A tractor or all-terrain vehicle flipping over on a soil berm or concrete wall for example, can end up in the water, maybe knocking the worker unconscious or pinning him/her under its weight. A situation that could result in a non-fatal injury for an agricultural employee on land can rapidly turn in a drowning fatality when working in aquaculture. In tank systems, OSHA has identified additional risks that may result in drowning such as walking raceways alone at night, structural failure of degraded walkways and absence of railings, algae growth on work areas and trip hazards.

Drowning is also a hazard for individuals not affiliated with the operation, such as visitors, technicians, family and particularly young children who may venture close to tanks or ponds out of curiosity. It is very important to surround fish-rearing bodies of water with a perimeter fence that limits the access of unsupervised and/or unintended visitors.

3. Crushing-related injuries.

Crushing happens when a part of your body is caught between two surfaces being pushed together with high pressure. These injuries are common when structures or vehicles fall on the worker or when machinery or equipment traps some part of the body. Since some crushing injuries can interrupt blood flow, permanent nerve damage can occur, as may infections which might lead to amputation. When the crushing incident is minor, it may be enough to thoroughly wash any wounds to avoid infection. Ice applied to the af28 Âť

fected area can reduce inflammation and pain. In severe cases, however, do not dismiss the possibility of a fracture. Have the employee attend a clinic for a more thorough medical evaluation, which might include x-rays. Severe accidents require immediate medical attention.

4. Hydrogen sulfide poisoning Hydrogen sulfide can occasionally

present toxicity risks in aquaculture settings. Its presence is the result of some sulfate-reducing bacteria (e.g.

Desulfovibrio) commonly found in aquatic environments (usually sediment) with high levels of organic material, as well as in waterlogged soils. While considered anaerobes in the past, Desulfovibrio and other sulfate-reducing bacteria are facultative anaerobes (â&#x20AC;&#x153;aero-tolerantâ&#x20AC;?). They

can survive in oxygen-rich environments but grow more efficiently in its absence. When there is no oxygen available, they use the oxygen present in sulfate molecules, reducing them to hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to both animals and humans since it interferes with respi-

ration. In aquaculture, its presence is associated with high concentrations of organic sediment (e.g. uneaten food and excreta), which allows these bacteria to proliferate.

Its health effects in humans vary depending on the susceptibility of the individual (pre-existing condi-

tions), its concentration in the air, and duration to its exposure. If the exposure is constant, it can affect health at lower concentrations. Those that suffer from acute or chronic respiratory conditions should not work, even sporadically, in areas where there is hydrogen sulfide production potential (e.g. cleaning sediment, etc.). At low concentrations the first signs are irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and the respiratory system (e.g. tearing of eyes, cough, shortness of breath) however the effects can be delayed, even for days. Moderate concentrations can cause severe eye and respiratory irritation (e.g. cough, difficulty breathing, etc.), headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, staggering and excitability.

According to OSHA an atmosphere with a concentration of hydrogen sulfide above 100 ppm is immediately dangerous and potentially need to work under these environmental conditions, workers should wear a full face-piece pressure demand self-contained breathing apparatus, with a minimum service life of thirty minutes. An alternative is a combination of a full face-piece pressure demand supplied-air respiÂť 29

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rator with an auxiliary self-contained air supply. At concentrations below 100 ppm, an air-purifying respirator may be used, if fitted with a filter cartridge/canister appropriate for hydrogen sulfide. If using only a halfmask respirator then there is a need to also wear tight fitting goggles.

Hydrogen sulfide portable sensors that alert workers of dangerous air concentrations are available nowadays. The smallest and affordable type are the size of a key fob and weigh less than 1 oz. Their range is from 0.0 – 50.0 ppm with a first alarm sounding at 10ppm, and the second at 20ppm. They also have an 8-hour time weighted average alarm (TWA) at 10ppm, which allows the worker to assess how long he/she was under lower concentrations.

a height, or slips and hits their head against a hard object, or when a moving hard object hits his/her head, and/or when loss of consciousness causes falling to the ground. Keep in mind that a hard blow to the head always has the potential of turning in a fatality, even if not immediately. If an employee loses consciousness after hitting his/her head, further medical evaluation is required to make sure the injury does not progress to something more serious. Do not accept an “I am fine” statement, nor a willingness to return to work immediately.

Take him/her to the closest clinic immediately.

6. Machinery/equipment accidents Accidents with equipment happen in every farm and aquaculture is no exception. Employees working with 5. Fatal head injuries Fatal head injuries can happen as a equipment should receive proper secondary outcome of almost any of training before operating any type the accidents reported above. Any in- of machinery. In addition, workstance where an employee falls from ers should be in proper mental and

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physical conditions to do so. Their impairment because of drugs, alcohol consumption or side-effects from medication could result in otherwise preventable accidents. Workers should also wear protective clothing adequate for the type of equipment operated. Machines with rotating parts can easily catch loose clothing (e.g. a tractor PTO) and pull the employee into the mechanism. If we are dealing with vehicles such as tractors or 4-wheelers, remember that most of the time they are designed for one person to drive and operate. Avoid having additional individuals riding along. Never use the bucket of a skid loader or tractor as a ladder to lift up a second operator.

Workers or visitors that have no business operating certain equipment should not be hanging around.

Always remember that they have not had the required training on the potential risks of the equipment, and are probably not wearing protective clothing or equipment.

All employees should know how to operate and perform maintenance on the equipment under their responsibility. Even if they have worked on the equipment for a long time, there is no excuse for shortcuts or modifications to the established protocols.

Turn off all pieces of equipment when they are going to be serviced or repaired. For any motorized vehicle, park it on level terrain, turn the engine off, engage the brakes, and make sure the transmission is not in neutral. We address the importance of having rollover protection elsewhere in this article.

7. Chemicals When working with chemicals, personnel should take the time and protect themselves with the proper attire (e.g. coveralls, rubber gloves, goggles or face shields, respirators, appropriate footwear).

• Pouring chemicals from a drum risks spills and splashing. It is far safer to use pumps, siphons, or gravity taps. There are also closed automated delivery systems.

• Install hand-held soft water showers. Place them where detergents are decanted and use them for removing chemicals from the eyes.

• Employer: responsible for providing, maintaining, and replacing, when necessary, all protective equipment.

• Employees: responsible for wearing protective equipment when working with chemicals. They should exercise care with all equipment, maintain it, and return it to its original location.

10. Handling of chemicals Every aquaculture farm should have a formal management plan to deal with chemical emergencies or spills.

This plan should include emergency and first aid contact phone numbers.

Enact workplace rules for the use of 8. Transport and Storage • All chemicals should be stored in a chemicals, and make sure all worklocked chemical locker or shed (apart ers follow them. Train workers who from the work area) when not in use. need to use chemicals, particularly This storage area should provide spill restricted chemicals, through a suitable program. Always ask yourself containment and ventilation.

• Chemicals used should always be if a particular chemical is necessary, inaccessible to children (childproof or if there is another safer and more barrier), visitors, and inexperienced environmentally friendly alternative. personnel.

• Store veterinary chemicals that 11. Tractors, all-terrain vehicles, require refrigeration in a separate and forklifts refrigerator not used for drinks or Tractor rollovers are the most frefood. quent accident in agriculture, and the • Clearly label acids and alkalis and major cause of deaths. It happens distinguish them from each other. when a tractor in an incline tips sideNever mix them together because ways or backwards and turns upside mixing causes a violent reaction. down crushing the worker under • Have chemicals delivered to the it. This usually occurs during sharp farm by a professional; avoid farm turns at speeds greater than normal personnel from being involved in causing the tractor to lose its center this task. of gravity. The center of gravity in a tractor is higher (top heavy) than in a car or pickup and a sharp turn makes 9. Decanting, Mixing & Use • Mix chemicals in a ventilated area them tip over more easily. Also deon a non-porous easy to clean sur- pending on the type of tractor, its face, and with close access to clean back half may represent up to 2/3 water for washing spills, personal of its weight, making flipping over more likely. This is even worse if the cleaning, or first aid. » 31

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tractor is fitted with a raised front loader. Tractors working on or near pond berms or levees in aquaculture settings pose an additional threat, since both tractor and operator risk falling in the water. When driving too close to the water’s edge, the bank can tear or collapse from the tractor’s weight. An otherwise nonfatal pin or unconsciousness while on land can result in drowning when in the water, even at shallow depths.

12. Preventing Rear Rollovers • Never hitch a towed load higher than the tractor drawbar.

• Use front chassis weights to counterbalance heavy rear-mounted implements.

• Always start forward motion slowly.

• Backing down a grade is risky, the faster the speed and steeper the slope, the greater the potential to flip over. Back down steep grades in a low gear, so the need to hit the 32 »

brakes is less likely (causing the tractor to flip). If possible, back tractors up steep slopes, and come down forward.

• If the tractor starts rolling backwards down a steep grade with the clutch disengaged, engaging is almost the same as braking, which could result in a backward flip. Just let the tractor roll to the bottom of the slope without applying the brakes or engaging the clutch.

• Never try to cross ditches, drive around them; if the drive wheels lodge in a ditch back the tractor out.

• Back the tractor out if stuck in the mud. Putting boards or logs in front of the drive wheels has been responsible for backward flips.

Modern farm tractors are fitted with rollover protective structures (ROPS). Their design minimizes injury potential in a rollover. In a ROPS-equipped tractor, it is critical to fasten the seatbelt securely.

Should a rollover occur the belt is

the safeguard that holds the driver within the protected area. Do not wear a seatbelt in tractors without ROPS since the belt eliminates any chance of jumping to security should an overturn happen.

13. Power Take-Off Safety Practices (PTO) Recognize the PTO shaft turns at speeds faster than our reaction time.

It is easy for a turning PTO shaft to snag a worker. Follow these guidelines to prevent entanglement: • Keep all components of PTO systems shielded and guarded.

• Regularly test driveline guards by spinning or rotating them to ensure they have not become stuck to the shaft.

• Disengage the PTO and turn off the tractor before dismounting to clean, repair, service, or adjust equipment.

• Always walk around instead of stepping over a rotating shaft.

• Always use the driveline recommended for your machine.

• Position the tractor’s drawbar properly for each machine used to help prevent driveline stress and separation on uneven terrain and during tight turns.

• Avoid tight turns that pinch rotating shafts between the tractor and machine; engage power gradually; avoid over-tightening of slip clutches on PTO-driven machines.

• Lock the PTO driveline securely to the tractor PTO stub shaft.

•Keep universal joints in phase.

(Check the operator manual or talk with a farm implement dealer.)

• Wear adequate, close-fitting clothes (avoid loose clothing hanging or blowing in the wind).

• Stop the tractor and disengage the PTO to work on it.

• Secure long hair under a hat when working around a PTO. • Instruct all operators about the hazards of a PTO.

• Keep children away from all turning parts of the machine, not just the PTO.

14. First Aid and Emergency Response Since fish farming entails safety and health risks, it is important to put in place a plan for an effective response to any incident. Employees should know what to do and how to seek help in an emergency (e.g., fire, traumatisms, electrocution, drowning).

Develop emergency response procedures, program occasional drills, and learn from them. Some basic items to look after when exploring emergency response procedure planning are: • Clearly identify the location of fire extinguishers (have them regularly inspected!)

• Names(s) of first-response person(s) • Avoid working alone, particularly at night

• Use reliable communications systems to transmit clear information where to locate injured personnel.

• Have at least one portable firstaid kit and a first-response person trained to assist someone hurt; everyone should know this individual’s name.

• Have first-aid kits that include disposable resuscitation masks and nitrile gloves.

• Send employee(s) to first-aid training courses. A worker who is seriously injured has the best chance for surviving if assisted immediately.

• All workers must know how to contact the first-response person.

Alvaro Garcia, DVM, Ph.D. is a Professor and the Agriculture & Natural Resources Program Director at South Dakota State University.

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Supplementation stocking of Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in small boreal lakes: Ecotypes influence on growth and condition

By: Olivier Morissette , Pascal Sirois, Nigel P. Lester, Chris C. Wilson and Louis Bernatchez

Supplementation stocking is a commonly used management tool to sustain exploited fish populations. Possible negative consequences of supplementation on local stocks are a concern for the conservation of wild fish populations. However, the direct impacts of supplementation on life history traits of local populations have rarely been investigated.

T

he voluntary introduction of exogenous animals and plants is one of the most frequent anthropogenic perturbations of wild populations.

Deliberate releases of exogenous fish commonly have the goal of increasing the abundance of a threatened population, increasing potential fish harvest or introducing new species. For decades, the stocking of lakes with fish reared in hatcheries has been an important management approach, both in North America and Europe. Stocking practices are diverse. Among them, supplementation stocking (or fishery enhancement) aims to compensate for low productivity or a reduction in the abundance of populations that have been either (over-)exploited by recreational fisheries or perturbed by anthropogenic disturbances.

Supplementation contributes to the maintenance of economically and socially important fish populations— largely salmonids in North America— targeted by angling activities. Although 34 »

supplementation stocking is an effective management strategy in some circumstances, the potential of direct and indirect negative impacts on wild populations remains hotly debated. There is a sustained interest to better predict the ecological, genetic and evolutionary impacts of stocked fish introduced into natural systems.

Introgressive hybridization between local and hatchery-reared individuals can have genetic impacts on local populations. The consequences of introgression are generally negative and include a decreased effective population size, alteration of genetic integrity, changes in gene expression, loss of local adaptations and a reduction of fitness. However, supplementation with native broodstocks or with stocks sharing a high similarity with the recipient populations has demonstrated few or no deleterious effects from introgressive hybridization. After several generations, local selection may purge foreign genes from the wild populations.

Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) is a large (mean: 400–500 mm), longlived (up to 45 years) and late maturing (with intermittent spawning) salmonid found in deep and cold freshwater lakes in North America. It is one of the most sought-after species by recreational anglers. Across its native range, Lake Trout exhibits marked variations in life history. Notoriously, three Lake Trout ecotypes (i.e., lean, siscowet and humper) have been shown to differ in terms of diet, size, morphology and ecology within the Laurentian Great Lakes, Great Slave Lake and Mistassini Lake. Even in smaller lakes and at a smaller geographic scale, populations can exploit a variety of divergent ecological niches, primarily attributed to local environmental conditions and the available prey community. The various life histories exhibited among Lake Trout populations can be summarized into two common ecotypes (e.g., planktivorous and piscivorous) typical of small boreal lakes. The planktivorous ecotype is characterized

by low growth rates, early maturation (~ 6 years) and a shorter maximum length of fish (< 450 mm), whereas piscivorous ecotypes exhibit high growth rates, late maturation (> 9 years) and a larger (> 600 mm) maximum length of fish. Some particular lakes can host both ecotypes living in sympatry, but the vast majority hosts a single allopatric ecotype.

The stocking of Lake Trout has been used for population supplementation for over a century. In Quebec, Canada, 46% of lakes in the southern portion of the province that harbor a Lake Trout population exploited for angling have been stocked at least once since 1928. Stocking in Quebec lakes has been documented since 1900; recorded information includes the source populations, the number of stocking events, the numbers of stocked individuals and the life stages at stocking. These records demonstrate that the ecotypes of source and recipient populations have never been considered in stocking practices. Sup-

plementation in Quebec always uses captive-reared broodstock from wild breeders that originate from allopatric Lake Trout populations of the piscivorous ecotype. This stocking approach has been used even when the recipient populations were allopatric populations of a planktivorous ecotype. To our knowledge, the impact of stocking on fish growth and condition involving different ecotypes has never been documented. Here, we aim to evaluate outcomes of supplementation stocking to propose strategies that could minimize potential negative impacts. We combined genetic (genotype-by-sequencing analysis) and life history traits to document the effects of supplementation on maximum length, growth rates, body condition and genetic admixture in stocked populations of two Lake Trout ecotypes from small boreal lakes in Quebec and Ontario, Canada.

METHODS Study design This study is based on a hierarchical

design with two factors: ecotypes of populations (levels: piscivorous and planktivorous) and stocking history (levels: stocked and unstocked) using lakes as replicates. The selected lakes are located in the boreal ecozone of Quebec and Ontario, Canada, are similar in size, share similar abiotic conditions (Table 1) and harbor a single— piscivorous or planktivorous—Lake Trout population. These trout ecotypes were determined based on the presence or absence of pelagic forage fish and the maximum size of Lake Trout as determined from governmental surveys (Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs du Québec (MFFP), unpublished data). We selected stocked lakes based on i) known stocking history to represent populations stocked at least once in the last twelve years and having a stocking history longer than 20 years, and ii) genetic information of the extent of introgressive hybridization obtained in a previous study.

As such, we wanted to maximize the probability of finding individuals having local or stocked origin genotypes and their hybrids.

Stocking history Stocking has generally used first-generation progeny (F1) of wild breeders, captured from known spawning sites in source lakes (e.g., Blue Sea and Trente et Un Milles lakes). Eggs are artificially fertilized in hatcheries and progeny reared in until stocking. Age at stocking varies between a few months (fry stage) to more than a year (1+ year).

Stocking densities are adjusted by the area of the stocked lakes and vary over time based on angling exploitation levels and previously measured catch per unit effort (MFFP, pers. comm). Neither domesticated strains nor adult fish have been used in the stocking of the study lakes.

Fish sampling Fish were collected in 2013 using an experimental gill netting method following the MFFP standard Lake Trout sampling protocol. Sampling occurred in collaboration with the MFFP and » 35

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the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (MNRF). Experimental gill nets used during sampling were designed and installed to ensure representative catches of the population’s length classes. The MFFP also provided 30 fish from each of two stocking source populations (Blue Sea and Trente et Un Milles lakes) (Fig 1).

We assessed sex and sexual maturity by visual inspection of gonads; maturity was recorded as a binary factor (immature, mature). Immediately upon capture, we measured total length (TL,

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mm) for every fish. Weight (g) was measured on fresh fish using a portable digital scale. A biopsy of the adipose fins (or pectoral fin if the adipose was missing) was taken from each fish and stored in 95% ethanol in individual plastic vials (Eppendorf, Mississauga, ON). Sagittal otoliths were extracted from the fish using plastic forceps.

Genomic DNA extraction followed the salt extraction protocol in conjunction with the RNAase A (Qiagen) procedure, following manufacturer specifications. Genotyping-by-sequencing

(GBS) libraries were prepared with the PstI and MspI restriction enzymes following a modified version of a twoenzyme GBS protocol used in a previous Lake Trout study. A total of 48 individuals were barcoded and pooled per library, and we used 96 barcode sequences of four to eight nucleotides.

Real-time PCR was used to quantify libraries.

We retained markers that were present in at least 70% of the individuals within a population. Loci filtering also included genomic likelihood, minor allele frequency and allelic imbalance.

Individual admixture proportions (Q) were estimated for stocked populations using the Bayesian clustering method implemented in the software ADMIXTURE v 1.3. The assumed number of clusters was either K = 2 or K = 3 according to stocking history data, but an extended range of probable K was also tested (K = 1 to 6).

The best number of clusters (K) in each analysis was inferred using crossvalidation error. Individual admixture proportion’s standard error (SE) was estimated from 2000 bootstrapped replicates. Stocked fish were assigned when Qstocking source + SE ≥ 90%, local fish when Qstocking source + SE ≤ 10%, whereas others were classified as hybrids (Q values ranging from 10 to 90%).

Age estimation and growth models were based on otolith annuli counts and measurements. Digital images of each processed otolith were captured using a digital camera (Leica DMC) coupled

to a dissection microscope (Leica MZ12) at a 30–60x magnification. Age counts and increment measurements (μm) were calculated from the nucleus to the maximum ventral radius of the otolith following established methods and criteria. Two independent readings (two readers) using ImageJ v 10.2 software measured the annual increments of otoliths.

We performed a third additional count when the first counts were not concordant. A total of 400 of 476 captured fish had otoliths suitable for age determination (16% rejected).

Twenty-nine percent of the otolith measurements required a third age count due to initial results not agreeing.

We modeled the effects of ecotype and stocking history on estimated age and measured TL (response variables) in stocked and unstocked populations using mixed effect models. Factors of the model were ecotypes (fixed, two levels: piscivorous and planktivorous), stocking history (fixed, two levels: stocked and unstocked) nested within ecotypes and sex (fixed, two levels: male and female). Populations (lakes) were treated in the model as a random factor. We assumed that sampled individuals were representative of populations and only the ecotype affected measured TL. Linear mixed models ran using the function lme in the R package nlme.

For every sampled fish, radial measurements of otolith annuli increments were used to back-calculate length-at-age using the body proportional hypothesis (BPH) equation: Li = [(Si)/(S)]v*L where Li is the back-calculated lengthat-age i, Si is the radial measurement (μm) of the annulus and v is calculated by regression. We estimated populationspecific and individual growth parameters using typical Von Bertalanffy growth models (VBGM) fit with a non-linear regression technique on the back-calculated length-at-age of fish from each population (and individual fish). This was performed using the nls function implemented within the FSA R package. This model Lt = Linf [1 –e-K(t-t0)] + ε describes back-calculated length (Lt) as a function of asymptotic length (Linf), the Von Bertalanffy growth parameter (K), the theoretical length-at-age 0 (t0) and additive process error (ε). The Ford-Walford method (function vbstart) estimated the initial values of parameters (Linf, K and t0) and bootstrapping (999 iterations) to estimate the parameters and their SE. The relative weight condition index (Wr) as Wr = 100 * (W/Ws) represented the individual body condition index, where W is the weight of captured fish and Ws is the standard weight, calculated from a species-specific equation as first suggested by Wege and Anderson. We calculated standard weight for every fish based on their TL and the published equation derived from 58 Lake Trout populations from throughout their native range of distribution: log10Ws = -5.681 + 3.2462 log10TL. As piscivorous and planktivorous ecotypes may exhibit slightly different body shapes, we tested whether Wr could be compared among and within ecotypes. We compared the Wr of unstocked populations between ecotypes using a Student’s t-test with the Welch estimation of the degree » 37

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of freedom for unequal sizes, under the assumption that the unstocked populations were representative of locally adapted populations and should therefore have comparable values (≈ 100) irrespective of the population’s ecotype. Finally, the impact of length and age on Wr values was also assessed through linear regressions with these data.

We modeled the effects of genetic background on individual Lake Trout growth parameters (Linf, ω) and the condition index (Wr) for each stocked population. Again, we used linear mixed effect models with factors of the model being ecotypes (fixed, two levels: piscivorous and planktivorous), genetic origin (fixed, three levels: local, hybrid and stocked) nested within ecotype, sex (fixed, two levels: male and female), and population (lake) was treated as a random factor. Linear mixed models were run using the function lme in the R package nlme. We also evaluated the effects of introgressive hybridization on Wr in stocked populations via the linear regression of Wr as a function of the proportion of local assignment (Q values) from the ADMIXTURE analysis using a dataset organized by ecotypes.

RESULTS Age estimates of all sampled Lake Trout varied between 4 and 28 years (mean = 12 years, SD = 3.45; Table 2). Measured TL varied between 195 and 862 mm (mean = 435 mm, SD = 104.93). Stocking history and ecotype effects on the estimated age and

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TL showed a significant negative impact of the planktivorous ecotype on measured length (p = 0.009). Sex and stocking history had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on TL and estimated age (Table 3).

The total number of raw reads obtained by sequencing was 2,057,139,965, averaging 3,590,122 reads/individual. After filtering, we retained an average of 600 SNP markers (range = 553–700) for pairwise

comparisons between the source and stocked populations. The low number of retained loci was expected given the trade-off of favoring the number of individuals retained in the analysis over loci. Yet, several hundred markers were sufficient to easily discriminate pure fish from fish of a different origin and their hybrids. Thus, in all cases, the most probable number of clusters was K = 2 when stockings were from only one source population and K =

3 when stockings were from two different source populations. This confirmed the accuracy of the stocking history records (Fig 2). As expected, all four stocked populations had fish from stocked, local and hybrid origins, with local individuals accounting for between 18% and 55% of the population sample (Table 4).

The regression of TL as a function of otolith radius for individual

fish without considering ecotypes had a weaker fit (L = 0.38*S0.972, R2 = 0.59) than the ecotype-specific regressions; piscivorous (L = 0.27*S1.03, R2 = 0.72) and planktivorous (L = 0.811*S0.85, R2 = 0.62). There was a significant difference between the slopes of two regressions (ANCOVA, F1,414 = 68.25, p < 0.001). Therefore, back-calculations of length-at-age were made applying the ecotype-specific equations.

Estimates of the parameters for the population-specific Von Bertalanffy growth model (Table 2) showed the same trend as above: non-stocked piscivorous populations exhibited a larger Linf than non-stocked planktivorous populations (Fig 3). Brodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growth coefficients (K) were similar within ecotype, albeit more variable among piscivorous populations. Origins of regression (t0) were compa-

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rable among populations, varying between 0.07 and -0.6.

Analyses of relative weight (Wr) in unstocked populations showed no significant difference between ecotypes (Welch T-test, T120.3 = 0.22, p = 0.82). There was also no significant linear relationship between Wr and TL (t-statistic20,153 = -1.45, p = 0.147) or age (t-statistic20,146 = -0.8, p = 0.425) in unstocked populations. Thus, variation in body condition was not influenced by body shape differences between ecotypes, length classes or age.

As such, we considered that Wr could be used as a consistent proxy of the variation in body condition for Lake Trout of both ecotypes.

Modeling the effects of ecotype, sex and genetic origin on individual growth parameters (Linf, ω) and the condition index (Wr) showed that sex had no significant effect on any of the response variables (Table 5). Ecotype had a significant negative effect on Linf, with planktivorous populations having a size about 300 mm smaller than piscivorous ones. Genetic origins had a significant negative effect in both ecotypes, showing a consistently larger Linf for stocked individuals compared to local and hybrid fish. The greatest effect was linked to a hybrid origin in piscivorous populations; this negatively impacted Linf, driven mainly by the low Linf of hybrids in Cayamant Lake.

The only significant effect for the response variable ω (growth rate) was attributed to hybrid origins nested within

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the planktivorous population, which was significantly lower than stocked and local Lake Trout.

Modeling of the body condition index showed that hybrid and local origins for planktivorous populations had a significant positive effect on Wr with local Lake Trout having the highest body condition index for this ecotype. Genetic origins had no significant effect on Wr in piscivorous populations, although there was a positive trend of an effect toward local fish having the highest condition index values.

Finally, we observed a significant linear relationship between the percentage of local assignment (Q) of individual fish and Wr in stocked planktivorous (y = 0.15x + 88.6, p < 0.001, adjR2 = 0.22, n = 157) populations, but not in piscivorous (y = 0.03x + 89.1, p = 0.1, adjR2 = 0.01, n = 128) populations (Fig 4).

Individual growth curves were highly variable among stocked planktivorous populations (Fig 3). Approximately 80% of stocked fish exhibited planktivorous-like growth curves while the other 20% were characterized by a strikingly larger asymptotic length (TL > 500 mm). Growth rate and Linf of those larger stocked Lake Trout were similar to those observed within piscivorous populations. Piscivorouslike stocked fish were significantly larger than either hybrids, local fish and the other 80% of stocked fish as of their first year of life (ANOVA on back-calculated length-at-age 1, F3,133 = 15.47, p < 0.001), and this difference persisted for the remainder of their life.

DISCUSSION The objective of this study was to test whether ecotypes of supplemented and recipient Lake Trout populations could influence fish growth and condition. In both cases (supplementation using similar or contrasting ecotypes), asymptotic lengths of stocked individuals were greater than that of hybrids and local individuals. However, in planktivorousstocked populations, most stocked individuals exhibited a planktivorous-like asymptotic length, whereas about 20% exhibited a piscivorous-like asymptotic length. Significant impacts on early life growth rates (omega) were observed only in hybrids within the stocked planktivorous population, the hybrids having lower growth rates than their congeners.

The body condition index was only affected in populations stocked with contrasting ecotypes (planktivorous populations), marked by its positive relationship with the percentage of local assignment.

Hatchery-reared salmonids generally exhibit higher growth rates and greater maximum lengths compared to their wild conspecifics. Higher growth rates should confer a competitive advantage to stocked fish and produce a displacement or decrease of local fish populations. On the other hand, hatchery-reared fish can exhibit significantly lower fitness than wild fish when selected traits are not adapted to new local conditions.

In this study, higher asymptotic lengths of stocked individuals were observed for both ecotypes. This finding is Âť 41

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evidence that even captive-bred broodstock can exhibit signs of directional selection from hatchery rearing at the expense of adapting to the natural environment. However, whereas the length of stocked fish in piscivorous populations was homogeneous, the length in planktivorous populations was bimodal. The growth rate of Lake Trout is expected to stem from gene × environment interactions and be tightly linked to available prey. Whereas conditions likely to affect growth in stocked piscivorous lakes are concordant with the local growth regime (stocked piscivorous-originating individuals and large pelagic prey availability), this is not the case for stocked planktivorous lakes (stocked piscivorous-originating individuals and the absence of large pelagic prey). Individual fish are more likely to exhibit greater individual variability depending on their genetic background or individual traits and express variable responses for the latter.

Even with their piscivorous genetic background, most stocked individuals in planktivorous lakes responded with growth and life histories typical of

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wild planktivorous individuals. In the absence of large energy-rich prey species (i.e., Mysid spp. or pelagic fish), the piscivorous life history, which requires caloric intake from those prey, cannot be sustained. Thus, a majority of fish exhibit a plastic response and adopt a phenotype that differs from that of their parents. However, about 20% of stocked fish can maintain a growth rate similar to rates observed in piscivorous populations. We hypothesize that this is due to cannibalism on juvenile conspecifics.

Based on previous studies, we expected that the growth rate of hybrid Lake Trout would be intermediate between the parental lineages. Here, we observed a significant difference only in the early life growth rate of hybrids from contrasting ecotypes (planktivorous/piscivorous hybrids). Those hybrids exhibited a significantly lower growth rate than their parental lineages. Given that the growth rate may be viewed as a proxy of individual performance and fitness, the lower growth rate in piscivorous/planktivorous hybrids—compared to fish of other

genetic origins—suggests a potential detrimental effect of hybridization.

This effect could result from outbreeding depression, although this remains speculative.

Our study showed that direct and indirect impacts varied depending on the similarity between the source and recipient stocks. Impacts of supplementation were generally small; however, the Lake Trout supplementation strategy in Quebec already incorporates multiple measures to minimize negative impacts (e.g., supplementation with F1 from a wild broodstock and supplementation at the fingerling or yearling stages). Nonetheless, we observed that supplementation stocking modified population growth and condition. We also noted detrimental effects associated with hybridization.

Therefore, the similarities between source and supplemented populations must be considered within the decision framework of supplementation management.

Modified from an article published July 12, 2018 in PLOS One https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200599

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LATIN AMERICA REPORT

Latin America Report: Recent News and Events By: Staff / Aquaculture Magazine

BioMar works with farmers to create a premium shrimp Ecuador.- BioMar has identified a market opportunity for a premium, sustainable shrimp product. They announced in September in connection with the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s annual conference, GOAL, that they will be collaborating with shrimp farmers in Ecuador to bring this innovative product to reality.

BioMar’s Global Sustainability Director, Vidar Gundersen, took part in several discussions during the GOAL conference where he shared his insights on how producers of other aquaculture species have unlocked new markets and business opportunities around the world. He gave examples of how BioMar in partnership with others in the value chain

Vidar Gundersen, BioMar´s Global Sustainability Director.

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were able to build sustainable brands within salmon.

“BioMar remains committed to sustainability and the work we started a decade ago. We can take the learnings from other species and apply them to create a truly sustainable shrimp choice for retailers and the end-consumers. We hope to initiate new projects with our customers, which can accelerate the development of high value shrimp products,” said Vidar.

Sustainability and raw material sourcing are hot topics throughout the entire seafood value chain as consumers and retailers look for more sustainable options. Ecuadorian shrimp is well positioned to leverage this opportunity. Vidar Gundersen led the development of BioMar’s sustainability platform BioSustain™.

The program has allowed successful collaboration partnership projects that have opened new markets and grown new business opportunities in aquaculture.

“Our sustainability journey began more than ten years ago. Through

a meticulous method of evaluating each raw material in terms of environmental footprint as well as nutritional benefits, the products are designed to meet consumers’ requirement for healthy and sustainable seafood,” explains Vidar.

Mr. Gundersen participated in another discussion panel at GOAL covering the work of IFFO RS Improver Programme and how it benefits all parts of the seafood supply chain.

BioMar has also teamed up with the Sustainable Shrimp Partnership (SSP) where they will share their experience and expertise to help drive the entire shrimp industry to the next level in terms of becoming more sustainable and responsible.

“BioMar has placed a high priority on the shrimp industry with our recent acquisition of Alimentsa in to the BioMar family. We are committed to driving real sustainable change that will benefit the entire value chain.

This is why we are directing resources not only towards industry initiatives like SSP but also to new innovations with the establishment of the Bio-

Mar Aquaculture Technology Centre in Ecuador which will open very soon,” concluded Henrik Aarestrup, Biomar’s Vice President for Emerging Markets.

Fish station of Palermo, pioneer in Colombia in ICA certification.

Colombia.- The Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) certified the Surcolombiana Experimental Station of Hydrobiological Resources, located in Palermo (northern Huila). It is a biosecure scenario and meets the highest standards of health.

The complex becomes the first and only one that has received this type of certification in the country by the Colombian health authority. In its facilities production of native fish species of the Magdalena River, some of them threatened, is being carried out for the development of repopulation programs in the river and in the El Quimbo and Betania reservoirs.

By complying with sanitary regulations, the presence of diseases is prevented and controlled, ensuring that the fish that they will use for the repopulation efforts do not represent any sanitary risk.

On the other hand, with this achievement, the Surcolombian Experimental Station of Hydrobiological Resources continues to position itself as an academic and scientific reference, and as a research center on topics related to the reproductive biology of native fish species.

Mexico´s aquaculture: a new era in favor of food security México.- In October, during a meeting organized by the National Commission of Aquaculture and Fisheries (CONAPESCA), it was highlighted that in Mexico there are more than 9,000 aquaculture operations in production, with high levels of health security and sustainable practices that allow international quality certification.

Specialists, researchers and producers say that in the face of the global challenges of climate change and food security, aquaculture in Mexico represents a strategic productive activity that is increasingly demanding in the production of nutritious foods.

With sustainability systems and markets opening nationwide and internationally, the industry can benefit from a framework outlined for its high social, economic and environmental impact.

Industry observers affirm that in less than a decade this practice will exceed wild fisheries in volume and value. Currently, aquaculture activity in Mexico represents 19 percent of the total of the national seafood production and 46 percent in the commercial value.

The head of the CONAPESCA, Mario Aguilar Sánchez, said that Mexico is in the major leagues in fisheries and sustainable aquaculture as a result of the integral work of producers, industry and authorities, through the adoption of new technologies.

The Commissioner pointed out that while aquaculture production is growing throughout the world at a rate of 6 percent, in Mexico it registered a growth rate of 13 percent, which is considered one of the most important successes in the primary sector of agrifood production.

They assert that Mexico has 9,230 aquaculture operations, most of which produce shrimp, tilapia, oysters, carp or trout. In less than six years the industry went from 254 thousand tons of production (in 2012) to 405 thousand (in 2017), an increase of 62 percent.

Talking about the production of tilapia, it was said that Mexico ranks second in Latin America, after Brazil, and ninth in the world, with a production last year of around 149 thousand tons.

The station, built by Enel-Emgesa in association with the Surcolombiana University.

» 45

AFRICA REPORT

Africa Report: Recent News and Events By: Staff / Aquaculture Magazine

Zambia: Aquaculture Enterprise Development Project -ZAEDPNational Steering Committee Urged to Expedite Approval of Work Plans and Budgets To ensure implementation of aquaculture development in the country, Fisheries and Livestock Permanent Secretary David Shamulenge says there is an urgent need to scale up activities of the ZAEDP initiative that was launched in 2017 in order to stimulate the aquaculture economy through private sector participation.

Dr. Shamulenge challenged the national steering committee, comprised of both private and public sector respresentatives, to ensure that 95 percent of the applications be approved and selection of contractors done in a transparent manner.

Speaking in Kitwe when he addressed the first national steering committee, Dr. Shamulenge implored the committee to strategize and move forward because the President and the ministry are anxious to develop the aquaculture sector in Zambia to move the country from a fish deficit to a surplus.

Giving an overview of the project status, Project Coordinator Dr. Alexander Kefi disclosed that about 2,800 applications have been received from 93 districts. Kefi said the project has so far established an aquaculture database, procured vehicles and motor cycles and is building capacity through training across the aquaculture value chain.

46 Âť

The ZAEPD is a $50 million USD five-year project running from 2017 to 2022 and is expected to benefit more than 50,000 business enterprises.

Tanzania: Tilapia Policy to Balance Conservation and Production Promoted The Tanzanian Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries has promised to use the Tilapia Policy proposal submitted by the Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (Tafiri) with a view to improving freshwater aquaculture. The proposed policy contains recommendations that stress effective ways of conserving the unique genetic diversity of tilapia for future food security.

The recommendations come following a seven-year research project on Molecular Ecology of Fish, with the goal of informing the conservation of Tanzania’s freshwater fishes.

The permanent secretary in the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Dr. Rashid Tamatamah, stated that the document would provide scientific findings for informed decision making.

“The success in developing a sound management system in the fisheries sector depends on research, which provides scientific information for better management. We will use the recommendations to improve the freshwater fish conservation and production of tilapia,” he said.

Speaking at the opening of a two-day conference on Evolution, Conservation and Management of Freshwater Fish Biodiversity in Tanzania, Tamatamah stated “This task was entrusted to Tafiri and we hope that the deliberation, which will come from this meeting will strengthen stakeholders’ efforts to conserve and utilize our fresh water resources for current and future generations.”

Dr. Benjamin Ngatunga, former Director General at Tafiri, added “Tanzania is one of the countries with a high number of Tilapia (out

of the 32 tilapia species in Africa, 20 were in Tanzania). We should continue maintaining a system of collaboration, consultation and cooperation with local and international researchers to enhance production of freshwater aquaculture.”

Gambia: Sub-regional Training on Aquaculture Enhancement Underway The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, in partnership with the Gambian Department of Fisheries, began a fiveday sub-regional training of youth and women on September 10 to enhance capacities for employment in aquaculture.

The training brought together 25 participants from The Gambia, Nigeria and Ghana at a local hotel in Bakau. It was organized under a three-year FAO funded technical cooperation program. The pro-

gram is focused on enhancing the capacity of youth and women for employment in Aquaculture, with a sub-regional project titled “Creating Agribusiness Employment Opportunities for Youth through Sustainable Aquaculture System and Cassava Value Chains in West Africa.”

Deputy Permanent Technical Secretary at the Ministry of Fisheries, Water resources and National Assembly Matters, Omar Gibba said fishing, climate change and high population growth all pose threats to the sustainability of capture fisheries in the region. “Therefore, the surest way to guarantee one feeding himself for a lifetime is not only to teach how to fish, but to teach him how to cultivate fish by the program drawn from this forum.” Aquaculture, he said, is not only about providing food directly but also to provide income for the farmers to improve their livelihood. » 47

AFRICA REPORT

FAO country representative Perpetua Katepa-Kalala said aquaculture is probably the fastest growing food processing sector, which she said now accounts for nearly 50 percent of the world’s food fish.

According to her, the overall growth in aquaculture production remains relatively strong owing to the increasing demand for food fish among most producing countries.

She said FAO statistics indicate that fisheries and aquaculture are major sectors for food security and nutrition with global production of fish, crustaceans, mollusks and other aquatic animals continuing to grow and reaching 170.9 million tons in 2016. “The most recent official statistics indicate that 59.6 million people were engaged in the primary sector of capture fisheries and aquaculture in 2016, with 19.3 million people engaged in aquaculture and 40.3 million people engaged in fisheries.”

The training, she went on, is intended to enhance the capacity of both officers and farmers in developing business acumen to facilitate the transformation of aquaculture in Africa into an economically vibrant and sustainable sector. “Specifically, the training will help the participants to assess the profitability level and financial wealth of aquaculture farms as to help make investment decisions.”

48 »

She thanked the government of The Gambia for hosting the training, while reaffirming FAO’s commitment to deepening its collaboration and cooperation with the Ministry of Fisheries and the people of The Gambia.

Namibia: Hangana Abalone Promises Growth in Aquaculture Fisheries minister Bernhard Esau says the revival of abalone farming at Lüderitz is an important contribution to the growth of aquaculture in the country. “The future of fishing - globally - is aquaculture. We must encourage aquaculture, including cage culture, in Namibia,” he said during the launch of Hangana Abalone Farming - a subsidiary company of Ohlthaver & List Group (O&L) at Lüderitz on Friday.

The minister added that abalone farming is not only lucrative and economically viable, but is also sustainable as the sea creatures only depend on seaweed for feeding. He encouraged the Hangana Group to pay particular attention to security for the sea creature as it is at a high risk of being poached. “Abalone is to the sea what the rhino is to the land, so security must be beefed up to prevent poaching,” the minister said.

Esau told the gathering that Hangana’s investment is a demonstration of other available investment opportunities that will lighten the

pressure on marine fish stocks, and is also a response to the government’s encouragement for mariculture and inland aquaculture as a means to increase the total production of fisheries and marine resources.

Also speaking at the launch, O&L group executive chairperson Sven Thieme said the farm is a way in which the group is creating alternative industries which will also contribute to growing the Namibian economy, and address the creation of jobs and poverty eradication. “Let us not only put our hopes on fishing, mining and tourism, but develop industries such as aquaculture,” he stated.

Hangana Seafood and Hangana Abalone Farming managing director Herman Theron said they have to date invested N$40 million into the farm since they acquired it in 2016 when they first approached the Lüderitz Town Council to become a partner. “We saw this treasure, and it was very important for us to rebuild it,” he noted.

He added that they are expecting to grow the production from 35 metric tonnes to 300 metric tonnes in the next four years. While they are planning on exporting all over the world, they are looking at countries such as Hong Kong, where the shellfish is a delicacy fetching high prices.

They are looking at their first export in the next six months Lüderitz deputy mayor Brigitte Fredericks said the coastal town is happy to be home to the first and only land-based abalone farm in Namibia. “Hangana Seafood approached our town council to become an economic partner in 2016, rescuing the fledging operation and securing the livelihood of 23 employees,” she said, adding that the farm is expected to create more jobs. The farm currently employs 45 workers, but expects to employ 300 more with the expansion of the factory in the next four years.

» 49

AQUACULTURE STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL

News from the

Aquaculture Stewardship Council

T

he aim of the review is to improve the efficiency and consistency of the programme, and to make Chain of Custody work better for companies and certification bodies.

The consultation relates to many aspects of CoC, including the following program developments: • On-shore labour practices.

This consultation seeks feedback on the proposal for new requirements for on-shore labour practices, which will be incorporated into the revised version of the Chain of Custody Default Standard. The proposal to introduce labour requirements into the MSC CoC program is a riskbased approach that requires certificate holders in high-risk countries and engaged in prioritized scope activities (any processing, (re-)packing and manual offloading) to complete an on-site audit against a recognized 3rd party labour program, to be eligible to maintain CoC certification.

The labour audit must be completed within 12 months of initial certification (or 12 months’ after a CoC holder’s first audit against CoC Standard v5.0) and must conform to the audit schedule of the relevant labour program. MSC is seeking feedback on the elements of the proposal to introduce and maintain the labour requirements. Please see the relevant section of this paper for detail.

• CoC Default Standard. This consultation seeks feedback on the proposed revisions to the Chain of Custody Default Standard, to ensure they are clearly articulated and address the issues raised. For ASC, a 50 »

ASC joins MSC in inviting stakeholders to participate in the 60-day

public consultation on the outcomes of the MSC Chain of Custody (CoC) Program Review to conclude on 15 October 2018.

Unit of Certification (UoC) may be a certified single site, an organization with multiple sites or a group of farms, each of which may consist of multiple sites. With regards to the latter two, the product must originate only from valid, eligible sites within a multi-site or group farm UoC, noting that one or more sites may lose eligibility due to a major nonconformity. Organizations should check harvest dates around suspensions (and to what part of scope the

suspension applies if not the whole certificate), species, production unit (if only specific types are certified), specific ponds/cages if partial certification, etc. – anything that could affect eligibility of product based on the definition of the UoC. • CoC Consumer-Facing Organization (CFO) Standard. The CFO version of the CoC Standard applies to any organization that serves or sells seafood to the final consumer and meets other specific

eligibility criteria. Consumer-Facing Organizations (CFOs) such as retail or foodservice can be single site or have numerous locations, and one CoC code is issued for all sites under the organization’s management system that handle or trade certified products. Similar to Group CoC, the CAB audits a sample of the total number of sites in the certificate.

Examples of CFOs include restaurants, restaurant chains, fishmongers, retailers with fish counters, and caterers.

Organizations are eligible to be certified against the CFO Version of the CoC Standard only if all the following applicable criteria are met: a. The organization sells and/or serves certified seafood exclusively or primarily to final consumers. b. Any sites that carry out processing or repacking of certified seafood do so exclusively on behalf of the organization. c. If the organization uses contract processors or repackers, these organizations have their own CoC certification. d. If the applicant has more than one site handling certified seafood: i. All sites are under the control of a common management system which determines the parameters for seafood supply, traceability infrastructure, staff operating procedures, and is maintained by the organization’s designated central office; and ii. The central office has an ownership or franchise relationship with each site, or a temporary right to manage all sites and staff where certified seafood is handled to ensure conformity with the MSC standard; and iii. The central office has oversight of purchase conducted at site level, with controls to ensure that all sites can only order certified seafood from certified suppliers.

• CoC Group Standard. This consultation seeks feedback on the proposed revisions to the Chain of

Custody Group Standard and the Certification Requirements that relate to group requirements, to ensure they will enhance the accessibility for all users of the Standard.

Accessibility is limited, particularly for groups of independents. Requirements are too confusing and complicated for groups of independent restaurants and fish mongers, even though Group Standard is the recommended version for this type of businesses.

• CoC Certification Requirements and General Certification Requirements. The purpose of this consultation is to seek feedback on the proposed text for the revised requirements, which will be incorporated into the next versions of the MSC Chain of Custody Certification Requirements and MSC General Certification Requirements planned for release in February 2019. These changes are intended to create efficiency, improve integrity and clarity.

The draft CoC CR and draft GCR include the proposed changes in track changes and explanatory comments.

As a range of ASC stakeholders have requested greater scrutiny of social issues in the supply chain,

ASC is leading a project to consider the inclusion of wider social issues for these facilities. This effort is being made in consultation with MSC and will leverage ASC’s expertise and experience in farm social requirements where applicable. Contributions on the current set of revisions are welcome and valued by ASC and MSC. Stakeholders and the public are encouraged to visit MSC’s website to view the consultation materials (https://improvements.msc. org/database/labour-requirements/ consultations/on-shore-labourpractices) and provide feedback.

Revisions to the Chain of Custody certification as a result of this consultation are scheduled for release in February 2019.

ASC Staff http://www.asc-aqua.org/

» 51

GENETICS

Genetic Strategies for Offshore Aquaculture: Improvement vs. Mitigation of Potential Impacts

In many instances, genetic improvement in aquaculture results in

more efficient use of resources and overall reductions in negative environmental impacts. But, when containment of “improved” cultured stocks cannot be completely assured, there is a threat that escaped

By Greg Lutz*

fish can impact the genetic integrity of wild stocks in the vicinity.

G

enetic improvement is an important factor in increasing the economic sustainability of aquaculture production. However, in aquaculture broodstock and hatchery management, it is not uncommon for a conflicting genetic “goal” to emerge: avoidance of detrimental genetic impacts on wild fish. When these two goals cannot be reconciled, as is often the case, what are the options? Avoid one, or avoid the other? This is difficult to achieve. From a genetic standpoint, when wild fish are subjected to the stressors of capture and captive maintenance, some live and some die: non-random sampling of the gene pool is occurring, as is domestication selection (adaptation of a captive population to the production strategy).

Although “improvement” in many instances may amount to little more than domestication selection… it can sometimes imply much more significant genetic changes. If we could be certain that captive-bred fish could be cultured successfully with ZERO escapes, there would be no problem.

But net pens have their limitations… and in some situations even escape through spawning can occur – wherein gametes and larvae are released into the environment.

52 »

Larimichthys crocea.

Traditional genetic improvement approaches are generally well-defined and understood for aquatic species, and can be easily adapted to the particular spawning biology of the species in question. Some species are group spawners, some originally function as males and then change sex (allowing for cryopreservation and subsequent self-fertilization…).

Methods and fecundities exist to allow for tremendous selection pressure compared to terrestrial livestock.

“Improvement” is well underway for

many marine finfish: examples are available for selection for growth, tolerance of handling, tolerance of poor water quality, resistance to diseases and/or parasites, acceptance of diets, improved fecundity, etc. etc. etc. The ways that phenotypes and genotypes change through selection can be easily illustrated (Figure 1). If a trait is at all heritable, the more intense the selection, the more apparent the response in the following generation.

The inconvenient truth, though, is that with every generation of selec-

tion more and more of the original genetic variation that was present is lost. This leads us to another, more complex and abstract goal involving avoidance of potential genetic impacts from escapees on local populations. Hatchery fingerlings grow into production stocks, and if some of these fish escape, they can join the spawning population. If the fingerlings being stocked are not representative of the surrounding population to begin with, any escapees will pose a “genetic threat.” Genetic threats are usually manifested in two forms: risks stemming from the translocation of non-indigenous genes, and risks stemming from changes in gene frequencies favoring propagation-related selection.

A number of phenomena can increase the potential impacts of cultured fish stocks on adjacent wild populations. Domestication selection, as mentioned previously, involves unintentionally selecting for broodstock that survive capture, artificial holding facilities, and diets offered in captivity.

Genetic drift reflects random changes in gene frequencies from one generation to the next due to small population size. Inbreeding depression (a loss of fitness over several generations due to mating closely-related individuals) can also have profound effects on the genetic makeup of hatchery-produced fingerlings.

In the past, there was a lot of interest in developing functionally sterile stocks, to mitigate any potential genetic impacts posed by escapees.

While there are methods to attain this goal, they have not proved practical on a commercial scale. Nonetheless, the idea continues to become popular from time to time. You can see a diagram here (Figure 2) that illustrates what occurs in the induction of triploidy or tetraploidy during fertilization and early development. Both involve applying pressure or temperature shocks at precise timing, to end up with either 3 or 4 sets of chromosomes, respectively, rather than the normal 2-set condition.

Acanthopagrus schlegelii.

Typically, the avoidance of potential genetic impacts requires diligent broodstock management and hatchery practices to produce a cultured stock that closely resembles the local population in terms of genetic makeup. Local fish are spawned with local fish. At first glance one might think this requirement could be satisfied simply by recruiting breeding stock from the local population, and while this may be the case in some circumstances, in others the realities involved in attaining the desired result are far more complex. In some populations, large numbers of wild fish must be collected to reflect the gene frequencies that prevail. Too few wild fish serving as breeding stock will result in a poor genetic sample – some alleles (genes) will be over- or under-represented, or not present at all. This is known as a founder effect.

Wang et al. (2012) used microsatellite markers to demonstrate loss of genetic variation in aquacultured yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea).

Three wild populations exhibited much greater variation than was evident in cultured stocks. Additionally, while wild populations were quite similar, cultured fish had become significantly differentiated over time.

Founder effects (insufficient initial representation of genetic variation in wild stocks), artificial selection, and random genetic drift were all cited as possible explanations for the observed genetic deficiencies of cultured stocks.

Other examples of how these impacts can manifest themselves have been documented over the years. Following multiple generations of releasing juvenile hatchery-reared Red Sea Bream (Pagrus major) produced by hatchery-reared broodstock into Kagoshima Bay, Hamasaki et al. (2010) found that although genetic diversity appeared to be lower in hatchery-produced fish than in wild populations, this hatchery-produced genetic influence was most pronounced in the immediate vicinity of the hatchery, » 53

GENETICS

and appeared to decrease significantly with increasing distance. Genetic impacts were low, overall, and appeared to be limited to within the Bay. Do these types of impacts occur often with other species, or was the Kagoshima Bay study an extreme example? In Spain, Sea Bream were intentionally stocked along the southern Atlantic Coast and in the Bay of Cadiz (Sanchez-Lamadrid 2002, 2004) and some released fish survived, exhibiting good growth rates and condition factors although remaining within 10 km of the release point. Dempster et al. (2002) surveyed Sea Bream near cages in which the species was being farmed, but found very few fish. In contrast, the initiation of Sea Bream farming in Messolonghi, Greece, was linked to increases in numbers of “wild” fish in the area (Dimitriou et al.

2007). One hypothesis suggests that spawning within cages, due to production practices favoring development of fish to large sizes (and, therefore functional females) has resulted in increased recruitment to wild stocks, although the biology of the species (natural fecundity vs environmental carrying capacity) might not support this theory.

In the case of Sea Bass, a couple of studies stand out. Cultured Sea Bass of western Mediterranean origins escaped in the eastern Mediterranean, and established a distinct population without introgressing into (mixing with) the local population (Bahri-Sfar et al. 2005). Toledo Guedes et al. (2009) reported that Sea Bass escapees from sea cages were subsequently found in waters off the Canary Islands, although the species does not occur there naturally. And we see similar examples with other species. In southern China and Taiwan, escaped non-native Red Drum have now become well established in offshore waters.

So, how can we know if we have a problem, or may develop a problemwith unacceptable genetic disparities between cultured stocks and the wild populations in the near vicinity? The 54 »

Pagrus major.

genetic make-up of both captive and wild populations must be regularly monitored. That sounds great… but what are we supposed to be looking for? In theory, both neutral and adaptive genetic variation. Various types of genetic markers can be used – some appear to have more utility than others depending on the particular situation. The important thing, starting out at least, is to look at several types of markers and try to find the

Figure 1.

genetic material that best portrays the variation in the wild population(s) in question.

Additionally, a geographic understanding of local gene flow may be required. Methodologies are available to identify population structure on local and regional scales, but costs may be prohibitive for commercial enterprises. Some species show distinct geographic genetic gradients, others exhibit “chaotic patchiness” among

Figure 2.

adjacent populations and some appear to have well defined borders between otherwise extensive interbreeding groups.

Haffrey et al. 2012 documented the impacts of reproductive migration, oceanic barriers and ecological factors on genetic fragmentation in the Meagre. In spite of biological characteristics that might imply high gene flow

(high dispersal capacity, high fecundity, a long larval phase, overlapping generations with reproduction until 40 years of age), two distinct population groups were apparent, with a boundary roughly corresponding to the Gibraltar Strait (Figure 3).

The reproductive biology of any given marine species will influence not only husbandry practices but also the

practical steps required to maintain a representative broodstock in the face of phenomena such as genetic drift and inbreeding depression. In some cases, as captive animals begin to diverge too far from wild fish, it may be necessary to â&#x20AC;&#x153;refreshâ&#x20AC;? the genetics of the captive broodstock.

Gruenthal and Drawbridge (2012) published an evaluation of the interplay between the broadcast spawning characteristics of the white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) and genetic management strategies. In a group of 50 freely-mating captive individuals, two females contributed 27% of the seasonal offspring pool, while every male contributed between 1% and 7% of the total offspring. How can these tendencies be offset? Some strategies may be useful, depending on the species in question. In studies of captive spawning of black sea bream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii) Gonzales et al.

(2010) demonstrated that collection of eggs at several distinct times over a single night improved the representation of alleles presented in lower frequencies. And, sampling eggs during the nocturnal period when spawning releases were greatest allowed for a significant increase in the effective number of breeding individuals, and accordingly genetic variation among offspring.

In summary, the over-arching goal should be for local hatcheries to maintain a genetic profile within their broodstock that approximates the gene frequencies of wild fish in the immediate region. Tools available to allow this are increasingly available and affordable.

Dr. C. Greg Lutz is the author of the book Practical Genetics for Aquaculture and the Editor in Chief at Aquaculture Magazine. editorinchief@dpinternationalinc.com

Figure 3.

Âť 55

NUTRITION

Lipid Nutrition

of Farmed Aquatic Animals By: Waldemar Rossi Jr.

Lipids are major constituents of living organisms, including aquatic

animals, and comprise indispensable macronutrients in aquaculture feeds.

L

ipids comprise heterogeneous compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, including ether and chloroform. They occur in nature in highly reduced states as fats, oils, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, and resulting metabolites, and have several roles including the main structural components of cell membranes, energy supply and metabolism, mediators of immune responses, and neural functions.

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Lipids as Dietary Energy Lipids are the most concentrated single source of dietary energy in feeds. The oxidation of lipids in animal cells yields over twice as much energy as that provided by the oxidation of the same quantity of protein or glucose.

Inclusion levels of lipids in aquaculture feeds are influenced by factors such as species, growth stage, and nutrient density of the feed.

Lipid levels in feeds for omnivorous and herbivorous fish including tila-

pia, catfish, and common carp seldom exceeds 8%, but they are slightly higher in feeds for freshwater and marine carnivorous fish (typically 10 – 15%), and can exceed 35% in Atlantic salmon feeds. Growth out feeds for Pacific white shrimp typically contain less than 10% lipid.

Among other factors, the ability of different species to utilize digestible carbohydrates as energy has a major influence on the amount of lipid included in feeds. Carnivorous species utilize digestible carbohydrates poorly compared to herbivorous and omnivorous counterparts and thus rely primarily on dietary lipid and protein for energy. Within a species or species group, feeds for young and fast-growing animals typically contain more lipid than for later stages, as the formulation of high protein feeds generally entails increases in lipid contents for properly balancing dietary energy and protein.

Several lipid sources are used in feeds for aquatic animals. Fats and oils of animal and vegetable origins have good nutritional value for aquatic animals and their utilization in feeds has been intensified in recent years due to the shortage and escalating prices of marine-derived fish oil. In this scenario, the choice of one lipid source over another must take into account factors such as price, availability, culture system characteristics, production phase and, most importantly, the essential fatty acid (EFA) requirements of the target species.

Essential Fatty Acids Living organisms differ in terms of fatty acid biosynthesis capability. Vertebrate and crustacean species are unable to synthesize n-6 and n-3 fatty acids de novo because they lack the ∆-12 and ∆-15 desaturases needed in the biosynthetic pathway.

In other words, the synthesis of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in vertebrate and crustacean species is only possible from existing n-6 and n-3 fatty ac-

ids. The ∆-12 desaturase and, to a lesser extent, the ∆-15 desaturase are present in terrestrial plants and the 18-carbon linoleic (LA, 18:2 n-6) and α-linolenic (ALA, 18:3 n-3) acids constitute their respective end products. The LA and ALA are precursors for the synthesis of the biologically active highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4 n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20: 5 n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22: 6 n-3), whose specific roles include cellular membrane structure and functionality, neural tissue development, and eicosanoid synthesis.

Studies on freshwater and diadromous fishes have indicated their ability to synthesize both n-6 and n-3 HUFAs from LA and ALA through successive elongations and desaturations, and a supply of LA and ALA at ~ 2% in the diet would satisfy EFA requirements for optimum growth and health. On the other hand, such biosynthetic capacity is known to be limited or lacking in marine fish and crustacean species for whom qualitative and quantitative dietary requirements for HUFAs have been defined. The supply of EPA + DHA at ~ 1-1.5% in the diet would satisfy the requirement for n-3 HUFAs of most species studied to date. Although information on ARA requirements remains limited, studies on larval and/or juvenile stages of marine fish and crustaceans have indicated the dietary indispensability of this n-6 HUFA.

Phospholipids Phospholipid is a general definition for compound lipids containing a phosphate group. Among common phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylserine (PS), and phosphatidylinositol (PI), are the most abundant phospholipids in fish as in other animals. Phospholipids are the major components of all cell membranes, supply important fatty acids, choline and inositol, participate in the absorption and transport of lipids, and are mediators in the metabolism of lipids and other nutrients.

Evidence from different studies indicate an age-dependent dietary requirement for phospholipids in fish and crustaceans, which is potentially linked to an inability of larval and early juvenile stages to synthesize phospholipids de novo. Positive effects of dietary phospholipids on growth, morphology, and survival of larval and juvenile stages of fish and shrimp have been observed.

Based on reported information, most larval and juvenile fish require dietary phospholipids in the range of 2-7%, while the dietary requirement of crustacean species would be met with PC at 0.5-1.5%. PC appears to be the most effective among the different phospholipids and soy lecithin has been the main supplemental source of PC in feeds.

Cholesterol Cholesterol is the main sterol in animals. It plays critical roles on the structure and permeability of cellular membranes and is a substrate for the synthesis of several molecules including steroid hormones and bile acids.

Contrary to most animals wherein cholesterol is a derived lipid synthesized endogenously, crustaceans are unable to synthesize cholesterol de novo and, hence, require a constant supply in the diet. Reduced growth and survival are typical signs of cholesterol deficiency in shrimp.

Recommended levels of dietary cholesterol in crustaceans range from 0.35% in Pacific white shrimp to 2.0% in kuruma prawn. Oils and meals of animal origin comprise good sources of cholesterol, whereas plant oils and meals only supply negligible amounts of cholesterol.

Thus, cholesterol is commonly supplemented into shrimp feeds when residual cholesterol from dietary ingredients is low.

Summary As in other animals, lipids are indispensable macronutrients in the diet of fish and crustaceans. Lipid nutrition of aquatic animals is an important area of research that has received increasingly more attention in recent years; likely due to the scarcity of sustainable and cost-effective sources of HUFAs for aquaculture feeds and the limited knowledge on nutritional requirements of farmed species. Lipid optimization of feed formulations based on nutritional requirements and nutritional value of raw materials can maximize production efficiency and profitability of aquaculture operations, while securing a continued supply of nutritious seafood to consumers.

Dr. Waldemar Rossi is Assistant Research Professor of Aquatic Animal Nutrition in the School of Aquaculture and Aquatic Studies at Kentucky State University. Dr. Rossi earned his Master’s degree at Auburn University and his PhD at Texas A&M. He has served as a reviewer for a number of internationally recognized peer reviewed journals and is a member of the World Aquaculture Society.

» 57

SALMONIDS

Ups and downs of

salmon and trout culture in Spain

By Asbjørn Bergheim*

The inland aquaculture sector in Spain employs, directly and indirectly,

nearly 5,000 people. Despite its small size, it is a great social sector creating many jobs in the rural areas.

S

pain is one of the major fishery producers in Europe, represented by around 1.2 million tons in 2015 (EuroStat Statistics). Of this, the annual aquaculture production amounts to ca. 300,000 tons dominated by mussel farming. Cultured finfish accounts for 65,000 tons (2017) of which marine species such as sea bass, sea bream and turbot constitute around 70% by volume. Most firms in aquaculture are small with less than 5 employees.

Rainbow trout is the sole salmonid species left in Spanish aquaculture. The first industrial trout farm commenced in 1940 (Jacobo F. Casal, pers. comm.) and the number of farms grew in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly in Northern Spain and particularly in the Galicia region. Later on, introduction of oxygen injection technology, development of effective vaccines, etc. boosted the industry.

The national trout production peaked at 35 thousand tons per year some 15 years ago but has gradually declined for several reasons (Figure 1).

According to Eurofish, there were altogether 77 farms producing trout to harvest size in freshwater and 5 hatcheries in 2014. Consequently,

58 »

the average farm size corresponds to an annually produced volume of 200-300 tons of trout. Most of the production is centered on small commercial sized fish of 200-400 g that have not yet reached sexual maturity, thus the growth is not affected by sexual maturation.

The inland aquaculture sector in Spain employs, directly and indirectly, nearly 5,000 people. Despite its small size, it is a great social sector creating many jobs in the rural

areas. The present turnover of rainbow trout production is around 100 million euros.

Among the reasons for the significantly reduced trout production are saturation in the Spanish market and lower exports. In the last decade, Spain has supported marine production at the expense of freshwater production. One of the objectives of the Ministry of Agriculture is to encourage a change in the decreasing trend of rainbow trout production and to foster a more dynamic sector (The Fish Site, 2013). A change in the “mentality of the country would open up the possibility of reaching, at least, the same levels of total freshwater finfish aquaculture production of some neighboring countries such as France or Italy” (An Overview of Freshwater and Marine Finfish Aquaculture in Spain: Emphasis on Regions).

Inland trout farming has been associated with a number of environmental impacts, e.g. poor water quality, risk of disease spread, and use of wild fish as an ingredient for feed. Most trout farms in Spain are declared disease-free. In order to minimize the environmental and social footprint of commercial aquaculture, companies that run inland rainbow trout farms strive to operate in

Figure 2. Salmon grown in RAS in the Basque Country (courtesy: Maddi Badiola).

compliance with the ASC Freshwater Trout Standard. Piscifactoria del Alba, located in Asturias, northern Spain, was the first Spanish company to gain ASC certification at its three freshwater sites (Aquaculture Magazine 43(3), 2017).

Regarding salmon, about a dozen rivers support native runs of such species (i.e. Atlantic salmon) in the northwestern part of Spain. Typically, the stocks have declined over the last decades due to human interference. More intensified agriculture, hydroelectric installations, etc. affect the watercourses and reduce the available habitat for ascending salmon and their reproduction. Restriction of populations to the lowermost parts of the rivers means that the habitat quality for wild salmon is not the best in terms of water quality and temperature. However, The North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) guidelines for protection, restoration and enhancement of salmon stocks are now being implemented in Galician rivers.

Salmon was first farmed in Galicia in the mid-1970s by using traditional sea cages (Jacobo F. Casal, pers. comm.). Commercial farming of Atlantic salmon was developed over a 30-year period. No farms have produced salmon since 2005 for a number of reasons (lack of adequate cage sites, conflict of interests, disease problems, and other aspects). In the Arousa estuary, scientific studies of grow-out in two cages ten years ago, however, concluded that the site had “excellent qualifications for salmon farming”

(www.fis.com). The performed studies also confirmed that salmon farming was not harmful to other species.

More recent experimental tests with on-growing of salmon in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) in the Basque Country (Northern Spain) also indicated high scores for the quality attributes of the final product (Maddi Badiola, pers. comm.) with no difference between sensory attributes of the local product and commercially produced salmon. These tests were run at two different temperature regimes; max 14 °C and max 19 °C, respectively.

Consequently, the high temperature group was periodically subjected to temperature levels considered ‘unfavorable’ for Atlantic salmon.

Despite different temperature regimes, the performance of both groups was not statistically different after 500 days of growth. So-called compensatory growth was observed during periods when environmental conditions (i.e. temperature) were improved after a period of less favorable conditions (Maddi Badiola, pers. comm.). This strategy was mostly developed to take advantage of the seasonal suitable thermal conditions. As such, these conditions were understood as minimum requirements to carry out any feasible salmon production, particularly in the Basque region.

Dr. Asbjørn Bergheim is a consultant at Oxyvision Ltd. in Stavanger. His fields of interest within aquaculture are primarily water quality vs. technology and management in tanks, cages and ponds, among others. asbjorn@oxyvision.com

Figure 3. Piscifactoria Del Alba.

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AQUAPONICS

The backyard aquaponics revolution

has the potential of stalling unless some things change “Even the greatest disruptive innovation can fail if it does not By: George B. Brooks, Jr. Ph.D.

Harnessing the Revolution To “harness” is to “control and make use of.” Aquaponics can be considered a Disruptive Innovation and I agree. And, by definition disruptive innovations create new markets. A market refers to people with the desire and ability to buy a specific product or service. In this case there was a latent need to grow food locally, in one’s own backyard if you could, created by the interlocking impacts of the great recession and green/sustainability movement of the mid-2000s. The advent of small aquaponics systems suitable for backyards provided an extremely attractive, relatively affordable and innovative new method to accomplish this task. This was historically a big deal that inspired a revolution in Aquaculture that had never been technically feasible before, at least in the United States: The creation of thousands of small aquatic farms scattered across the nation’s rural and urban backyards.

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improve over time to meet the needs of new markets.”

As suggested by the Google Trends graph seen here, the challenge is that now after the explosion in backyard aquaponics of the 2000’s, we may be seeing a decline in enthusiasm as we near the 2020’s.

There are many possibilities to explain what we see in this graph, but I would suggest one reason is that we never really seized the moment to understand all the benefits this new resource could bring, to improve on them and then to focus on new and better ways to put them to work.

What are seen in backyards are often Do It Yourself (DIY) custom-

ized examples of 3 basic aquaponic system types (NFT - Nutrient Film Technology, DWC – Deep Water Culture and Media Bed) that were first developed in the early 2000s.

Regrettably, it seems few new, exciting, efficiency-improving ideas have been introduced in perhaps 10 or more years. That is quite some time.

This is not to say there have been no additions or improvements. For example decoupled aquaponics and vertical towers would count, but more technical improvements and the business models to harness them are likely needed. Even the greatest

disruptive innovation can fail if it does not improve over time to meet the needs of new markets.

For this discussion I will be limiting my comments to backyard scale that I define at a size just large enough to grow a few hundred pounds of food at 4m2 / about 40ft2. This size is also very close to the designs specified in the well-respected FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Small-scale Aquaponic Food Production manual, and so is familiar to the reader (FAO 2014) One could argue this criteria is arbitrary but since, as will be discussed below, there is no universally accepted definition of what backyard aquaponics is, and for that matter no universally accepted definition of what aquaponics itself is, it will have to do for now and using the UN specs provides additional justification. Logically for such a broad subject as this, attempting to cover all aspects of the challenges created by the other parts of the aquaponics revolution including “hobby” and “commercial” scales would be impractical at this time. When you tie in food safety as well as city and state food and fish farming regulations things get even more complex.

Four Suggestions The following suggestions explore only the tip of the iceberg of things that could be done.

1. Define Aquaponics You can’t grow an industry, even one based in backyards, if you can’t define it. Though some will likely disagree, there is no universally accepted definition of what aquaponics is. The one I use for the college level aquaponic classes I teach is, “Aquaponics is a method of Recirculating Aquaculture (I.E. aquaponics is aquaculture) where classic nitrogen cycle biofiltration is married to some form of constructed wetland water treatment where the growth of often economically valuable plants pol-

ish the water of nitrate and other byproducts. This water may then be re-circulated back to the animals or discharged for use downstream.” Others would suggest, “It is simply the combination of aquaculture and hydroponics” a definition that I find wholly inadequate.

So deep is this challenge that many would simply say, “I can’t really define it but I know it when it see it.”

The same dilemma is faced when seeking to define the scale of aquaponic production. When such simple terms as backyard, hobby or even commercial can be hotly debated, it is clear much work still needs to be done. As suggested by Dr. Wilson Lennard when writing on a related subject, “Aquaponics is becoming more prominent as an agricultural production technology and is currently so broadly applied that the term itself has no real practical definition. It is time a precise and practical definition is agreed upon and universally adopted so operators can legitimately claim the use of the term in a context where consumers can have the confidence that they are purchasing products that are grown in a way that actually means something and confers the implied advantages associated with the term.”

(Lennard 2015) 2. Numbers, Numbers, Numbers: To define and understand the opportunities that backyard aquaponics creates you must have the data.

Because some States record the numbers of farms, as well as credible anecdotal reports, we can say that there are now thousands of “backyard” scale and larger aquaponic farms across the U.S. and other parts of the world, with more on the way.

What we cannot say with any real certainty is what they are doing, for there is no reliable data as to how large they are, how much food they are producing or even what kind of food they are producing when and where. There is also little reliable information on the cost of producing food within most of these systems. Without these numbers there

is no real way to determine success or failure.

3. Killing the Krakens Reducing costs and increasing efficiency are driving forces for innovation and improvement in most industries. I can see no reason why that would not be true as well for aquaponics. Frequent complaints include that backyard aquaponics is expensive, complex in design and operation while being simultaneously fragile and prone to leaks, clogging, overflows and fish kills.

The terms PVC octopuses, monsters or krakens have been coined to describe how they look and can act. Based largely on the use of IBC (Intermediate Bulk Containers), the basic designs for backyard systems crystalized some years ago and were written about in many books including the FAO Manual mentioned earlier. Since then, there has been little change in design. Without numbers describing what success or failure is, there has been no driving reason to make change so the krakens live on and regrettably reproduce.

4. Rise of the Aggregators What do you do with the excess food from a thousand little farms scattered around a city? Though farmers’ markets work, there are many backyard farmers who do not have the time and energy or enough products to devote to selling in that venue. Believe it or not this is actually becoming a problem in some cities. To quote Rosanne Albright, Environmental Programs Coordinator, City of Phoenix Manager’s Office, Office of Environmental Programs, “In developing the Phoenix Food Action Plan, our blueprint for strategies and actions that move Phoenix toward achieving it’s 2050 Local Food System goal of making healthy, affordable food accessible for everyone, we recognize that a key component in those actions is local food. Engaging local farmers to understand their needs and create solutions for better distribution » 61

AQUAPONICS

networks and increased capacity to sell their products will be an important element of the plan.”

There are many potential solutions to this problem. One that is growing in importance are food aggregators.

Food Aggregators are buyers and/or brokers of food that may also package it and sell it to consumers. Some may also process, a hard to find feature critically important for fish sales.

In a way, a Farmers Market is technically a food aggregator. But now we are seeing other types of organizations taking up the banner in Urban Areas from the well established CSA (Community Supported Agriculture) concept to more expansive models including Food Hubs and Co-ops (Cooperatives) which are modern takes on the classic agricultural Co-op from decades past. As stated by the USDA, “food hubs make it possible for producers to gain entry into new and additional markets that would be difficult or impossible to access on their own.” This basic principle of making access to markets easier is the foundation of all the aggregators.

One aggregator in Kansas City (Kansas Urban Farm Co-op) has stated 62 »

specifically that they are selling locally grown fish, which bodes well for the future.

Conclusions The success of any innovation or the degree of disruption it achieves is dependent on how over time it is refined to better meet the needs of its market.

Aquaponics is no different. Backyard aquaponics was an idea in the right place and the right time. Without this technology the construction of thousands of small aquatic farms across the United States, Australia, Europe and worldwide would not have been possible. This is literally the definition of what a disruptive innovation does; it opens and creates new markets where they were not possible before.

However, without change, without improvement to address the basic challenges that it in itself created, like marketing for example, the momentum gathered by this backyard revolution can slow to a stop. With such great potential to do great things, to allow the momentum to die and backyard aquaponics to stagnate would be a travesty.

*Dr. George Brooks, Jr. holds a Ph.D. in Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences from the University of Arizona in Tucson and served as that institution’s first Aquaculture Extension Specialist. He is currently Principle at the NxT Horizon Consulting group and also teaches Aquaponics at Mesa Community College. He may be reached at george@nxthorizon.com

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THE LONG VIEW

The Seafood Albatross

By Aaron A. McNevin*

It is becoming more and more apparent with every release of the

FAO global fisheries statistics that cultured species are taking over the aquatic foods marketplace. This has been and continues to be forecasted but is it time for a rethink on whether seafood is the best term to encapsulate aquaculture products.

W

ait! I am not going into that ridiculous argument about why not all aquaculture is seafood because of the freshwater species – those making this argument are too removed from the real world to even matter. What I am referring to is that if aquaculture is

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considered seafood, it comes with the baggage of impacts from capture fishing. Of course, not all capture fishing is bad, but with 90% of stocks fished at or beyond their regenerative capacity, it doesn’t really paint a rosy picture.

Aquaculture is animal protein production or farming. It is not hunting.

We have given up hunting in most parts of the world because the efficiency of energy transfer of the natural biodiversity is too slow and inefficient to sustain the human population. Thus, humans manipulated environmental conditions and domesticated certain species of animals to increase the efficiency of animal protein production. This is exactly what has been accomplished with aquaculture, aside for the few capture-based aquaculture sectors that span from the benign (mussel spat fall) to the damaging (tuna ranching).

So why do we still refer to aquaculture products as seafood?

It would seem that the best reason for aquaculture to continue to be referred to as seafood is because there are certain health benefits attached to consumption of aquatic animals, and this allows for certain marketing aspects that attract consumers to seafood. If one were to put these health benefits aside, is it possible to think of another reason why aquaculture products are referred to as seafood, aside from the fact that 50% of aquaculture comes from marine environments? Let’s hold that thought.

The eNGOs began working on the protection of the marine environment and wild fisheries long before they took up aquaculture. Obviously, aquaculture is relatively new compared to fishing, but because aquaculture was considered “seafood” many eNGOs engaged with the sector through a marine conservation lens. Why does this matter? Because marine conservation has traditionally been about keeping human activities out of the oceans. That is, aside from fishing, which is often grandfathered in as a way of life or an important livelihood. Interestingly enough, any activity – good or bad – can be justified under the guise of livelihoods.

It is not just the NGOs that have compartmented aquaculture into seafood, many institutions of higher education have done the same – housing aquaculture in marine conservation, fisheries science, or marine biology

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THE LONG VIEW

departments. Seldom is aquaculture in an agriculture department. Why? It appears much more suited for aquaculture – taught or researched – to be housed in an animal protein production compartment. Aquaculture is not marine conservation and it is definitely not fisheries management.

While in some cases aquaculture products can sometimes supplement wild fish through stock enhancement, the decisions around stock enhancement – how much, what species – are not coming from those that produce the aquaculture products. Consider even FAO. Aquaculture is set aside with capture fisheries rather than incorporated into the broader terrestrial production areas of animal proteins.

It would be a lie to suggest that fisheries professionals and aquaculture professionals harmoniously collaborate in the NGOs, at Universities and in the development agencies.

There is the constant competition for funds and other resources that keep these disciplines and practitioners at odds. But would a home in an agriculture compartment solve these issues? No, there will still be a fight for resources, but at least logically, it would make more sense. Of course, one could argue that livestock production doesn’t have the best reputation and would tarnish aquaculture should they be housed together, but to be frank there are a number of forms of aquaculture that would tarnish livestock production such as the production of carnivores.

Food production more broadly has caused the loss of 70% of the planet’s biodiversity. This loss has largely come from the conversion of habitats – deforestation, leaching of soil nutrients, damming of rivers and polluting natural water ways.

This has happened almost exclusively outside of the ocean environment, aside from runoff into coastal areas. By compartmenting aquaculture into seafood as the red-headed step child of capture fisheries, the potential for aquaculture is masked.

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We simply cannot convert more of our terrestrial environment to food.

We have to produce more with less, but where can this be done? This is obviously not a brain buster.

The ocean environment is a critical ecosystem and its functions and ecosystem services must be protected. The marine environment also has immense biodiversity and beauty that requires conservation and, in

many places, preservation. But these highly diverse and productive areas are few in comparison to the oceanic environment that is considered devoid of life.

If we are going to continue to produce animal protein for human consumption, and if we recognize that food production has converted most of our natural terrestrial habitat, is it appropriate to consider all

future animal protein, including aquaculture, come from land-based facilities?

The human health benefits of consuming aquatic protein are clear but coupling aquaculture to wild capture fisheries simply to market health benefits as seafood diminishes aquacultureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role moving forward. Aquaculture is food production. Capture fishing is hunting. One has a growth future. The other, at best, remains constant.

Dr. Aaron McNevin directs the aquaculture program at the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

He received his MS and PhD from Auburn University in Water and Aquatic Soil Chemistry. Aaron has lived and worked in Indonesia, Thailand and Madagascar and currently manages various projects throughout the developing world. He previously worked as a professor of fisheries science, and is the co-author of the book Aquaculture, Resource Use, and the Environment.

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TECHNICAL GURU

Chillers and Heat Pumps

by Amy Stone*

Chillers and heat pumps are not always necessary in aquaculture, but they are needed when consistent temperatures are critical to animal growth. With an increase in the number of recirculating systems being built, they are becoming a necessity for growth control.

Both work on similar refrigeration principles but this article will address them separately.

5 hp air cooled chiller.

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Chiller Mechanics For the most part, the commercially available systems consist of either water-to-water or air-to-water condensers. These condensers utilize either tube in shell or plate & frame heat exchangers. They all have their advantages and disadvantages. Basically, the coolant (refrigerant gas) is removing heat from the system water and rejecting it through the condenser to the atmosphere, either by fan or by cooling water.

To break it down even more, imagine the outside condensing unit (Noisy box with large fan) on your air conditioner at home. This equipment is basically an air to coolant condenser that is sending coolant into your air handling (evaporator) unit in the house to cool the air. Now imagine the same condenser hooked up to a shell & tube or plate frame heat exchanger and now you have exactly what we use for the smaller horsepower chillers. Water to coolant condensers use cool water to remove the heat from the system coolant (refrigerant). Water cooled condensers are less common in aquaculture but should be used when there is a steady source of reusable clean cool water to increase efficiency.

Heat Pump Mechanics Heat pump (HP) condensers are essentially the same equipment found in chiller applications, except HPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s both heat and cool. They lose efficiency when the ambient air temp is below 8C (48F). If they are to be used in chilling mode when the ambient air temperatures are below 8C, they can be outfitted with a low ambient control which essentially maintains the system pressure by cycling off or varying the condenser fan speed. In cooler temperatures, the coolant reacts differently, and this low ambient kit helps the unit perform at lower ambient temps by controlling coolant pressures. To be clear, the low ambient control kit only works when the heat pump is in chiller mode.

Heat Exchangers The two most common types of heat exchanger are tube in shell and plate & frame (PHE). Tube in shell is exactly how it sounds. It is comprised of a coil of tubes that are encapsulated in a shell. In general, the tubing in designs for aquaculture is comprised of titanium or stainlesssteel. Some are made with cupronickel or other metal alloys. We tend to avoid using metal or copper alloys as they tend to leach into the water and may be toxic and less corrosion resistant in salt water. My personal recommendation would be using titanium as it is the most durable in saltwater and never fails from corrosion.

This shell and tube style of heat exchanger will perform well even with suspended solids in the water.

It is very robust, and requires minimal preventative maintenance compared to PHE styles. It has been my go-to style for aquaculture because of its durability and ease of use. It is also preferred when the temperature differential is high, as it is more cost effective.

The other option that we often see is the plate frame style heat exchangers (PHE). This style consists of multiple metal plates compressed between gaskets to create a specific gap and allow water to flow through in alternating directions. The plates often have corrugated surfaces. This

Delta Star Interior Compressor view.

20 hp Heat pump.

through the exchanger. Often times, we use a dedicated booster pump to recirculate water from the filter system through the heat exchanger and back to the aquatic system.

creates turbulence and forces the process water to transfer energy (chill or heat) to the system water through the very thin (0.05 mm) Stainless Steel or Titanium plates.

That turbulence helps scour the plates and increases the efficiency of the temperature exchange. It typically requires higher head-pressure pumps to push the system water

System Considerations There are several pieces of important information that influence the sizing of chillers and heat pumps. One of

Water to water HEX Clipped.

Cyclone Chiller with Drop-in Coil.

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TECHNICAL GURU

the critical factors when designing or engineering a chilling system is the type of aquatic system and where it is going to be used. The surface area, geometry and material of the tanks all play roles in the sizing calculations. Other factors include ambient temperature (air temp), incoming water temperature, system water exchange rateâ&#x20AC;Ś and the list goes on from there.

Believe it or not, every piece of the puzzle impacts the size of a chiller and/or heat pump. First, letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s start with the culture tank. How big is it? What is the surface area of the water that is exposed to the ambient air? Consider that a large shallow tank will lose or gain temperature much faster than a deeper tank.

Open channel piping, drum filters, de-gassing towers and moving bed or trickling biofilters will affect the loss or gain in temperature that the system will see.

Imagine trying to keep water at 12C with an air temperature of 20C and a system that consists of a drum filter, a large centrifugal pump, a low head oxygenation system and a de-

Dual Ton chillers in Shrimp farm.

gassing column. Depending on how much water is being exchanged in the system, that could translate to a rather large chiller plant. Of course, many of those factors can be ma-

nipulated to minimize the heat gain but it all comes at a cost to control aquatic water temperatures.

When designing aquaculture production systems, it is best to balance all aspects including the capital costs as well as the operating costs. Chillers and heat pumps have a starring role since they are critical components.

Amy Riedel Stone is President and Owner at Aquatic Equipment and Design, Inc. She was formerly a Manager at Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, and she studied Agriculture at Purdue University.

She can be reached at amy@aquaticed.com

Ton chiller in shrimp farm.

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» 71

AQUAFEED

Science finds solutions for aquafeed

Business moves, ingredient views and market trends in aquaculture feed

By Suzi Dominy*

Scientists in both academia and business around the world are

ramping up research into developing alternative feed ingredients for aquaculture. Here are just a few on which we have recently reported.

I

n the USA, Dartmouth College scientists have demonstrated that a marine microalga coproduct can replace fishmeal in feeds for Nile tilapia. The Dartmouth team’s latest work replaces fishmeal with the microalga co-product, Nannochloropsis oculata, which is rich in both protein and omega-3 fatty acids, including Eicosapentaenoic acid.

The co-product is available at commercial scale and continued increases in supply are expected.

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The study, the first of its kind to evaluate replacing fishmeal with a coproduct in feed designed specifically for Nile tilapia, demonstrated that the co-product had higher protein content than the whole cells but had lower digestibility than whole cells.

The co-product showed the highest digestibility of lysine, as well as the highest Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) digestibility. The team produced and evaluated several feeds with varying percentages of the co-product re-

placing fishmeal. When 33 percent of fishmeal was replaced with the co-product, the Nile tilapia showed similar growth, survival and FCR to those on the control diet containing fishmeal. The team hypothesizes that the co-product may need to be enhanced with enzyme(s) to maximize nutrient availability and counter the lower digestibility observed in the experiment.

“The possibilities for developing a sustainable approach to aquaculture are exciting. Our society has an opportunity to shift aquafeed’s reliance on fish-based ingredients to a fish-free product that is based on marine microalgae, and our findings provide new insight into how we can get there,” said lead author, Pallab Sarker, a research assistant professor at Dartmouth. The research builds on the team’s earlier work developing a marine microalga feed for Nile tilapia made from Schizochytrium sp., which evaluated how the feed affected digestibility and growth. The results demonstrated that Schizochytrium sp. was highly digestible. The tilapia not only had higher weight gain but better feed conversion compared to those on a control diet containing fish oil, when the Schizochytrium sp. fully replaced the fish oil.

Camelina in salmon feed In the U.K., the University of Stirling in collaboration with Rothamsted Research, is conducting a study on the potential benefits of using Camelina in salmon feed to improve access to omega-3 fish oils. The study will consist of trials to test the new feed, which includes oils pressed from the genetically modified oilseed crop plant Camelina. The modified plant has high-levels of omega-3 fatty acids and if successful, the study can help return levels of omega-3 fatty acids in farmed fish to the levels of a decade ago.

The research is jointly led by fish nutritionist Professor Douglas Tocher, of Stirling’s Institute of Aquacul-

ture, and plant scientist Professor Johnathan Napier, from Rothamsted Research.

“The joint project allows us to culture salmon to market size in sea pens while extracting data to ensure new feeds support good growth, feed use and product quality,” Professor Tocher said.

“This is the largest feeding trial to validate the efficacy of the project,” added Professor Napier. “It’s extremely significant because it will demonstrate the ability to use omega-3 fish oils from plants across the whole production cycle of salmon.”

“It’s taken a decade to develop plants able to produce the oils and be used in aquaculture,” said Professor Napier. “This GM technology shows great promise as a potential solution to help fish farming remain even more sustainable while continuing to grow as an industry.”

Boosting the value of ento feeds The University of Stirling is also working with U.K. – based Entomics, a startup that transforms food waste into three sustainable ‘fuels’ for plants, animals and vehicles using Black Soldier Fly as a conversion catalyst to validate and test their products in the field. Entomics is using a novel bioprocessing technique to boost the nutritional and functional benefits of insect-derived feeds; they have termed their microbial fermentation technology “Metamorphosis.”

“There are several benefits to this process,” explained Miha Pipan, Chief Scientific Officer and fellow co-founder, “from affecting the gut’s microbiome and trying to preserve a healthier bacterial community there, to training immune systems to make livestock more resistant to disease challenges and at the same time reduce the need for veterinary medicines, antibiotics and vaccines.”

Entomics Biosystems, which was set up in 2015 by a group of students from the University of Cambridge, is also working on an engineering proj-

Camelina.

ect to build a smart, modular system for insect production in the future.

Astaxanthin from fish bones Meanwhile, in Norway, researchers at Nofima have discovered that a mineral-rich ingredient extracted from fish bones can increase significantly the color of salmon muscles.

The effect, which was first observed in an experiment with salmon smolt, was visible to the naked eye and confirmed by chemical analyses. The color came from astaxanthin. Only a limited portion, usually less than 10 per cent, of the astaxanthin in salmon feed is absorbed in the muscle of farmed salmon. This can be caused by limitations in absorption and transport via blood and liver, or limited absorption and pigmentation in muscle tissue.

“It is somewhat unexpected that a mineral ingredient can affect pigment utilization,” said Dr. Sissel Albrektsen, senior researcher at Nofima. “But at the same time, it is very positive to see that nutrients liberated from fish bones can considerably increase the utilization of astaxanthin in salmon feed.”

Feed with the phosphorus-rich mineral ingredient was also test-

ed on slightly larger salmon during the growth period from 1.7 to 2.5 kilo grams, and compared with salmon that received the same feed to which a regular source of commercial phosphorus was added. In muscle, the researchers found 35 per cent more color, measured as milligrams of astaxanthin per kg of fish growth. The salmon’s ability to digest astaxanthin increased by nearly 20 per cent in fish fed the mineral ingredient, while the pigment levels in both the blood and liver also increased.

“We believe that the main explanation of why the muscle becomes redder is that the salmon digest more of the astaxanthin with the mineral ingredient present in the feed,” said Dr. Albrektsen.

It has been repeatedly proven in salmon that the mineral ingredient stimulates increased growth, and in some cases this is explained by increased digestibility of nutrients. In the initial experiment with smaller salmon, it was found that the astaxanthin levels in blood, liver and whole fish were 55, 29 and 22 per cent higher, respectively, compared with fish that were fed an ordinary source of commercial phosphorus. » 73

AQUAFEED

Camelina Photo Matt Lavin (CC BY-SA 2.0).

Additive from sugarcane improves FCR and growth in shrimp and fish Recent trials found that a new feed additive derived from sugarcane can offer key benefits such as improved growth rates and feed conversion ratios in shrimp and fish. Trials with the patented additive Polygain, produced by Australian company The Product Makers (TPM), were conducted by Dr. SK. Ahmad-Al-Nahid, Head, Department of Fisheries, Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences University in Bangladesh.

Dr. Nahid and his team carried out extensive dose response trials on three prominent aquaculture species in Bangladesh: pangus (Pangasius hypophthalmus), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Some of the key benefits demonstrated during the trials include improvement in feed conver74 »

sion ratio – current feed additives yield 1kg shrimp for 1.6kg standard feed, as opposed to TPM’s feed additive that yields 1kg shrimp for 1.15 kg feed additive. In addition, TPM’s feed additives resulted in larger shrimp and fish.

“The aim of the University trials was to confirm the suitability of natural polyphenol product in commercial fish and prawn pellets used at low doses,” said Dr. Nahid. “The industry has been looking for a natural nonantibiotic-based growth improver and this has the potential to expand the value and volume of exports.”

The outcome of the trials represents significant potential for the shrimp and fisheries sector in Bangladesh to enhance output and expand exports. TPM has now commenced delivery of commercial orders of their polyphenol-based feed additive in the country.

Hatchery feed developments As we recently reported in Hatcheryfeed, our specialist media platform for early life-stage and broodstock feed and nutrition and all things hatchery (see Hatcheryfeed.com), a Norwegian company has developed novel and game-changing techniques to cryopreserve marine crustacean nauplii in large user-friendly entities, and to revive them as live individuals after thawing.

“Our overall vision was to upscale, pilot and commercialize the innovative CryoPlankton production process for cryopreserved marine crustacean nauplii. This can replace conventional live feeds used at marine hatcheries,” explained lead researcher Dr. Nils Egil Tokle, of CTO Planktonic AS. A large-scale, industrial trial showed that the vulnerable period during which larvae consume live

feed could be greatly reduced in comparison to the time needed when the fish juveniles exist on diets commonly used at marine hatcheries.

“Traditionally, juveniles often display a high rate of deformities. These fish have a low market value and must be sifted out manually before going into sea cages,” said Dr. Tokle, citing sub-optimal feed as being the main reason for the low quality of juveniles. The rate of deformities in the last trial was extremely low, at less than 2 percent. However, Dr. Tokle was quick to point out that although the usual rate is far higher, the controls were also low so there was no statistical difference. “We do have strong indications that deformities are reduced, but we can’t yet make that an absolute claim,” he said.

The project managed to scale up production more than they had estimated initially, producing more than 8 tonnes, and protocols developed at end-users’ hatcheries resulted in fish juveniles which showed 50-100percent higher growth rates and far higher rate of survival compared to the control treatments. The produced fish juveniles were better quality, with low deformities and high stress-resistance.

Along with the benefits arising from the quality of CryoPlankton, the project has found a way of making the process more environmentally-friendly by reducing the amount of plastics normally associated with the process. “This is also much easier to use,” Dr. Tokle said. In the past, the hatcheries had to take out pouches of feed from a dewar flask (a double-walled flask of metal or silvered glass with a vacuum between the walls, used to hold liquids at well below ambient temperature). “This which was a difficult task considering that the temperature inside as -196° Celsius. In addition, it was difficult to open the pouch as it became brittle in the liquid nitrogen.”

Their system is also more efficient: it uses just one unit to thaw,

wash and revitalize the nauplii which means it is more practical to undertake at the end-user’s location. The whole process takes just half an hour a day. Conventional live feed diets require a lot of time and considerable skill. But however good the feed, its use must be simple and distribution smooth. “We were also pleasantly surprised to see that delivering the product was relatively straight forward,” explained Dr. Tokle. The team sent out containers full of CryoPlankton to Greece, Portugal and Malta with no hitches.

The team believes CryoPlankton can help the aquaculture industry to overcome problems such as growth, survival, vitality and stress-response.

“One of the reasons for high mortality is the presence of pathogenic bacteria in conventional live feed diets. No pathogens have ever been detected in CryoPlankton, and fish producers have even medicated infected fish larvae with our product,” Dr. Tokle said.

Another European project has developed a state-of-the-art automatic system to control the most important variable parameters in live feed production for fish hatcheries.

The systems were geared to suit conditions for aquaculture in Greece and Norway.

Among the most important parameters regulating algal growth are nutrients, temperature and light. As the use of manpower is expensive and prone to error, the EU project ALFA aimed to develop fully automated systems, one for northern Europe powered by electricity and another for more southerly countries supported by solar powered units.

Both photobioreactors are designed for the stable growth of algae by using illumination and control of other variables including nutrient content, pH and water carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. The project team also developed a novel optical algal monitoring system to ascertain quality and growth rate of the algae.

Added value came with several features. The system was linked to a newly developed continuous rotifer production system (CROPS). Rotifers are zooplankton and therefore will provide an additional source of food for the juveniles. An automatic harvesting system was also incorporated so algal food can be controlled and maintained at levels of usage or the excess stored.

Two full-scale complete systems were built and tested in Greece and Norway. Not only was performance evaluated but adaptations were made to optimize output according to local conditions. The data were then compared with a stochastic model incorporating the random variables.

Suzi Dominy is the founding editor and publisher of aquafeed.com. She brings 25 years of experience in professional feed industry journalism and publishing.

Before starting this company, she was co-publisher of the agri-food division of a major UK-based company, and editor of their major international feed magazine for 13 years. editor@aquafeed.com

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URNER BARRY

Salmon

UPDATES FROM URNER BARRY By: Paul B. Brown Jr.*

O

verall June 2018 salmon imports were 9.71 percent higher on a year-todate basis. On a monthto-month basis total imports were down 5.81 percent compared to the previous month. The month of August saw some continued adjustments lower for smaller whole fish on the West Coast. The Northeast market saw increases on most sizes throughout the month and the European whole fish numbers are still below both last year and the three-year averages; the market trended both higher and lower throughout the month. After slipping lower in the beginning of the month, the Chilean fillet market has remained very steady throughout August.

Imports of fresh Atlantic fillets in June 2018 were 2.1 percent lower than the previous month, while total YTD imports were 15.7 percent higher. Chile, the main driver in this category, saw a slight 0.8 percent decrease in month-to-month numbers while YTD imports were up 24.6 percent. In comparison to the same time last year, June 2018 was 26.4 percent higher than June 2017. Fresh fillet imports out of Norway saw a 0.5 percent decrease in month-to-month imports; and were experiencing a 21.6 percent decrease in YTD imports.

After a slip downward in the beginning of the month, the Chilean fillet market was extremely steady for the duration of August. Current pricing is well above the three-year averages, above 2017 pricing and below pricing seen in 2016. The volumes of fresh fillets are at all-time highs; the highest levels seen in 10 years, 15.6 percent higher than 2017 for fresh fillets out of both Chile, Europe, and Canada.

76 »

The seasonal slip and stable market are historical. Current pricing had a steady to about steady undertone going into month’s end and into Labor Day weekend.

Imports of frozen Atlantic fillets decreased 17.6 percent compared to the previous month. In contrast, on a YTD basis imports were 9.8 percent higher. Imports from Chile decreased 32.3 percent from the previous month but remained 14 percent higher on a YTD basis. Imports from Norway increased 26.1 percent compared to the previous month and were seeing a 17.1 percent increase on a YTD basis.

We must mention that we assume this HS code includes frozen portions. As import volumes increase, we are now starting to see a reaction in frozen fillet and portions pricing.

The frozen fillet market out of Chile has been stable most of the month but some lower offers were noted on frozen fillets. Frozen portions remain steady to full steady at listed levels. Offerings for product yet to be produced remain somewhat strong as the market will most likely struggle to find a level while the fresh market continues to adjust; although August was mostly very stable. With higher frozen imported levels seen in 2017, we’ll see how the market reacts and if there is inventory that will be offered to the spot market.

Average retail prices in August 2018 are lower than August 2017 in most areas of the U.S.; lower $0.30. The ratio of retail ad prices to wholesale prices is about the same as compared to the previous month; a ratio of 1.64 which is even with 1.64 from the previous month. The current overall ratio remains lower compared to where it was back in 2015 and the beginning of 2016. UB quotations, after trending lower in the beginning of August, have remained very steady throughout the duration of the month.

According to Chilean data, exports of Chilean salmon to the world increased by 26.8 percent through June 2018 compared to the same period last year. Shipments of fresh Atlantic fillets to the U.S. were 25.0 percent higher on a YTD basis.

The 2018 wild salmon season has seen a successful sockeye season while other species look to be coming in below forecasts. Pricing for sockeyes looks to be seasonally on par with previous years but is now trending below the three-year averages.

The coho market is firmer than seen in previous years, supplies are lighter and current pricing is above previous years’ pricing and above the threeyear average. *President of Urner Barry pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com

SHRIMP

UPDATES FROM URNER BARRY

J

By: Paul B. Brown Jr.* une 2018 data from U.S. Census showed a 7.8 percent decline in total volume for the month.

This was the second-straight month reflecting a year-over-year decline. Shrimp imports through the first half of 2018 were roughly six percent higher than last year. In the month, shipments from Indonesia continued to increase, coming in 15.5 percent higher than June 2017.

Meanwhile, shipments from India (-1.7%), Ecuador (-16.3%), Thailand (-43.5%), Vietnam (-13.8%) and China (- 21.3%) declined in June.

India: The U.S. imported 224 million pounds of shrimp from India January through June, representing an 18.4 percent increase over the first six months of 2017. However, in June, for the first time in two years, India shipped less shrimp to the U.S. when comparing the same month in the prior year. Total shipments in the month of June were 1.7 percent lower; 26.9 percent less shell-on, but 12.3% more peeled.

Indonesia: Indonesia continues to ship more shrimp year-over-year and remains the second largest supplier to the U.S. market. Shipments were 15.5 percent in June and are 17.0%

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URNER BARRY

higher in the first half of the year. Indonesian shipments of shrimp to the U.S. have increased for seven straight years.

Ecuador: Shipments from Ecuador to the U.S. have been on the decline in each of the last three months. June shipments fell 16.3 percent and are now even with a year ago.

Thailand and Vietnam: Shipments from Thailand were down 43.5 percent for the month and 28.1% yearto-date. Vietnam shipped 13.8 percent less in May and 4.3% fewer for the year

Shrimp Price Timelines; Retail Ads Retail: Buying opportunities jumped in the month of July to their highest level in over two years and ad prices remain competitive, extending the streak of lower year-over-year ad prices to six months.

Year-to-date buying opportunities have increased to the highest level in any of the prior five years researched.

Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s apparent that grocers see shrimp as a value and have been dedicating more ad space to the category.

*President of Urner Barry pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com

TILAPIA, PANGASIUS AND CATFISH UPDATES FROM URNER BARRY

T

By: Paul B. Brown Jr.* otal tilapia imports in June increased 35 percent from the previous month. Both frozen fillets (48%) and frozen whole fish (39%) increased dramatically, while fresh fillets fell nearly 9 percent compared to the previous month. On a year-to date basis, frozen whole fish continued to remain above 2017 figures by 10 percent, while both frozen fillets (-10%) and fresh fillets (-12%) have some catching up to do. Imports of frozen whole fish increased again from the previous month, registering 8 million pounds in June 2018, increasing 39 percent from the previous month and coming in almost 12 percent above the 3-year average for this month. On a YTD basis, imports were up almost 10 percent compared to last year.

78 Âť

Imports of fresh fillets in June totaled 3.7 million pounds, falling almost 9 percent below the previous month. This figure is the lowest June total since June 2011 brought in 3.5 million pounds. Total YTD imports were down almost 12 percent from 2017, where Brazil (-37%) and Mexico (-36%) saw the largest decline in imports while Costa Rica (11%) saw the largest increase for the month of June. From a replacement cost basis, as well as the adjustments made to the weighted import price per pound (which includes only the top five suppliers), we found that the June figure of $2.91 increased $0.07 per pound from the previous month and is the highest figure for 2018 so far. The market in the U.S. continues to be reportedly quiet but steady.

Imports of frozen tilapia fillets totaled 20.7 million pounds for the month of June, increasing substantially, up 48 percent from the previous month, following the seasonal pattern for this commodity. June imports were within range but slightly below the 3-year average (23 million pounds) and 10-year average (23.5 million pounds). YTD figures were the lowest on record since 2009.

Replacement prices for frozen fillets fell $0.05 cents to $1.74 per pound for the month of June after increasing twenty cents between March and May 2018. We must remember that when costs overseas advance, it is likely that U.S. importers will try to pass the increase onto the U.S. market. This will be especially telling as the industry eagerly waits

on looming China tariffs that could significantly impact these prices. The three-year average of U.S. wholesale prices from 2015-2017 continuously adjusted lower after reaching record highs in 2014. Since then, imports trended lower and prices remained steady at approximately $1.80 in the U.S. wholesale market until recently.

Pangasius and Channel Catfish Imports of Pangasius fell 11 percent from the previous month in June, after three consecutive months in the green. Import volume was down a dramatic 50 percent from June 2017, and down 31 percent on a year-todate basis. Frozen channel catfish fillet imports were up 30 percent from the previous month. On a year-todate basis, channel catfish imports were nearly 12 percent.

Frozen channel catfish fillet imports have increased consecutively since March of this year. June imports brought in 1.5 million pounds, showing a 30 percent increase in volume from the previous month and up 14 percent from the same month a year ago. Shipments in June entered the U.S. with a declared value of $2.49 per pound, falling $0.15 from the previous month. This is the lowest recorded import value since the November 2014 figure of $2.23. The U.S. wholesale price is listed at $3.58

per pound, ten cents below this time last year. The market is being watched closely as the tariff situation could have a major impact on import and wholesale pricing.

June Pangasius fillet imports fell from the previous month by 11 percent, registering 12.3 million pounds.

This figure comes in well below (-49%) the previous three-year average of 24 million pounds. This is the lowest recorded June on record since 2010 brought in 9.4 million pounds for the month. On a YTD basis, imports are down over 30 percent compared to 2017. European data run through June 2018 and reveal imports had fallen over 14 percent from the previous month. Both U.S. (-31%) and European (-%) imports were down compared to last year YTD figures.

According to the data from the USDOC, US replacement prices have once again hit a record-setting level.

The replacement price for June 2018 increased $0.10 per pound from the previous month, recorded at $1.97.

According to most in the industry, this upward trend was expected and could continue especially in the wake of tariffs looming on the industry. *President of Urner Barry pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com

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Upcoming

aquaculture events

OCTOBER AQUASUR Oct. 17 – Oct. 20 Puerto Montt, Chile E: aquasur@editec.cl W: www.aqua-sur.cl OCEAN MARICULTURE CONFERENCE 2018 Oct. 17 – Oct. 19 Corfu Imperial Hotel Corfu, Greece W: www.offshoremariculure.com/europe GENDER IN AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES CONFERENCE 2018 Oct. 18 – Oct. 21 Asian Institute of Technology Campus Bangkok, Thailand W: www.gafconference.org/home.htm LACQUA 2018 Oct. 23 – Oct. 26 Agora Bogota Convention Center Bogota, Colombia T: +1 760 751 5005 E: worldaqua@aol.com W: www.was.org NOVEMBER 12TH INTERNATIONAL SEA LICE CONFERENCE Nov. 4 – Nov. 8 Dreams Hotel Event Center Punta Arenas, Chile W: www.sealice2018.cl/

1RS INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MARICULTURE Nov. 8 – Nov. 9 Caracol Science and Aquarium Museum Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico E: simposio.int.maricultura.fcm@uabc.edu.mx XIV FENACAM Nov. 20 – Nov. 23 Natal Convention Center Natal, Brazil W: www.fenacam.com.br/ JANUARY 2019 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON SHRIMP AQUACULTURE 2019 Jan. 24 – Jan. 25 Auditorium of the Universidad LaSalle Noroeste Cd. Obregon, Mexico C: crm@dpinternationalinc.com T: +52 33 8000 0653 Ext. 8653

MARCH AQUACULTURE 2019 Mar. 07 – Mar. 11 Marriot New Orleans New Orleans, USA T: +1 760 751 5005 E: worldaqua@aol.com W: www.was.org

JUNE ASIA-PACIFIC AQUACULTURE 2019 Jun. 18 – Jun. 21 Chennai, India T: +1 760 751 5005 E: worldaqua@was.com W: www.was.org

OCTOBER AQUACULTURE EUROPE 2019 Oct. 8 – Oct. 10 Berlin, Germany T: +1 760 751 5005 E: worldaqua@aol.com W: www.was.org NOVEMBER LAQUA 2019 Nov. 20 – Nov. 22 San José, Costa Rica T: +1 760 751 5005 E: worldaqua@aol.com W: www.was.org

advertisers AERATION EQUIPMENT, PUMPS, FILTERS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, ETC AQUATIC EQUIPMENT AND DESIGN, INC.....................................41 522 S. HUNT CLUB BLVD, #416, APOPKA, FL 32703. USA. Contact: Amy Stone T: (407) 717-6174 E-mail: amy@aquaticed.com GLOBAL AQUACULTURE SUPPLY...............................INSIDE COVER T: 844-946-4272 www.globalaquaculturesupply.com PENTAIR AQUATIC ECO-SYSTEMS, INC.......................................67 2395 Apopka Blvd. Apopka, Florida, Zip Code 32703, USA. Contact: Ricardo Arias T: (407) 8863939, (407) 8864884 E-mail: ricardo.arias@pentair.com www.pentairaes.com YSI.........................................................................................13 1700/1725 Brannum Lane-P.O. Box 279, Yellow Springs, OH. 45387,USA. Contact: Tim Groms.

T: 937 767 7241, 1800 897 4151 E-mail: environmental@ysi.com www.ysi.com ANTIBIOTICS, PROBIOTICS AND FEED ADDITIVES LALLEMAND ANIMAL NUTRITION................................................39 Contact: Bernardo Ramírez DVM Basurto.

Tel: (+52) 833 155 8096 E-mail: bramirez@lallemand.com www.lallemand.com LEIBER............................................................INSIDE BACK COVER Hafenstraße 24 49565 Bramsche, Germany.

T: +49 (0)5461 9303-0 E-Mail: info@leibergmbh.de www.leibergmbh.de

80 »

Index

EVENTS AND EXHIBITIONS AQUASUR 2018......................................................................71 October 17 – 20, 2018. Puerto Montt, Chile.

E: aquasur@editec.cl W: www.aqua-sur.cl 1ST INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MARICULTURE.............63 November 8 and 9, 2018. Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico.

Caracol Science Museum and Aquarium.

E: simposio.int.maricultura.fcm@uabc.edu.mx AQUACULTURE AMERICA 2019............................................65 March 6th -10th, 2019. Marriot New Orleans. New Orleans, USA. E-mail: worldaqua@was.org www.was.org INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON SHRIMP AQUACULTURE 2019..................................................................1 Januany 24th – 25th, 2019. Auditorium of the Universidad LaSalle Noroeste. Cd. Obregon, Mexico.

E-mail: crm@dpinternationalinc.com T: +52 33 8000 0653 Ext. 8653 INFORMATION SERVICES AQUACULTURE MAGAZINE..............................................43, 49 Design Publications International Inc. 203 S. St. Mary’s St. Ste. 160 San Antonio, TX 78205, USA Office: +210 504 3642 Office in Mexico: +52(33) 8000 0578 - Ext: 8578 Subscriptions: iwantasubscription@dpinternationalinc.com Ad Sales. Chris Criollos, Sales Manager crm@dpinternationalinc.com | Office: +52 33 80007595 Cell: +521 33 14660392 Skype: christian.criollos AQUAFEED.COM..........................................................................19 Web portal · Newsletters · Magazine · Conferences · Technical Consulting. www.aquafeed.com

URNER BARRY.............................................................................79 P.O. Box 389 Tom Ride. New Jersey, USA. Contact: Ángel Rubio.

T: 732-575-1982 E-mail: arubio@urnerbarry.com RAS SYSTEMS, DESIGN, EQUIPMENT SUPPORT VEOLIA WATER TECHNOLOGIES.................................BACK COVER 250 Airside Drive - Airside Business Park - Moon Township, PA 15108 - USA T: +1-412-809-6641 Fax: +1-412-809-6512 www.veoliawatertech.com SOFTWARE CARGILL, INCORPORATED........................................................37 PO Box 9300. Minneapolis, MN 55440-9300. USA. 800-227-4455 (English) TANKS AND NETWORKING FOR AQUACULTURE REEF INDUSTRIES.......................................................................25 9209 Almeda Genoa Road Z.C. 7075, Houston, Texas, USA. Contact: Gina Quevedo/Mark Young/ Jeff Garza.

T: Toll Free 1 (800) 231-6074 T: Local (713) 507-4250 E-mail: gquevedo@reefindustries.com / jgarza@reefindustries.com / myoung@reefindustries.com www.reefindustries.com